Vacuoles are used to contain harmful materials, waste products, and small molecules. They also maintain pressure and an acidic pH within the cell. While most, if not all of plant cells have at least one vacuole, not all animal cells have one. In animal cells which contain vacuoles, they aid the processes of exocytosis and endocytosis among others and play a critical role in a process known as autophagy.
Autophagy, is a catabolic process in which cell parts that are no longer functioning correctly or are simply no longer necessary are broken down. This occurs by first isolating the targeted components / organelles and then fusing lysosomes to them. Lysosomes are organelles that contain acid hydrolase enzymes. This process is especially beneficial during periods of starvation in which the cell may digest its own components for survival.
Sunday, 16 June 2013
Muscle contractions
There are 3 main types of muscle contraction, these are concentric, eccentric and isometric.
Concentric contractions occur when the muscle involved is shortened in order to overcome a resistance placed on it, for example, the biceps shorten when lifting a dumbbell in a bicep curl.
Eccentric contractions are the opposite, they occur when the muscle involved lengthens in order to lower an object or resistance placed upon it, for example, lowering the dumbbell at the end of a bicep curl causes the biceps to lengthen.
Isometric contractions occur when the length of the muscle remains constant and the resistance is not moved through space, for example, holding, without moving, an object.
Concentric contractions occur when the muscle involved is shortened in order to overcome a resistance placed on it, for example, the biceps shorten when lifting a dumbbell in a bicep curl.
Eccentric contractions are the opposite, they occur when the muscle involved lengthens in order to lower an object or resistance placed upon it, for example, lowering the dumbbell at the end of a bicep curl causes the biceps to lengthen.
Isometric contractions occur when the length of the muscle remains constant and the resistance is not moved through space, for example, holding, without moving, an object.
Wednesday, 5 June 2013
Parasympathetic Nervous System - brief overview
Generally involved in the rest and digest response, or other activities that occur when the body is resting.
Preganglionic neurons are usually long, postganglionic neurons are usually short, this is because the preganglionic neurons must travel from the brain and spinal cord to a ganglion that is next to or inside of an organ. The postganglionic neurons which communicate with the organ are therefore very short in comparison.
Both types of neurons typically use acetylcholine as their neurotransmitter but can also utilise neuropeptides.
Examples of parasympathetic stimulation:
- Iris (eye muscle): pupil constriction
- Salivary glands: saliva production increased
- Oral / Nasal Mucosa: mucus production increased
- Heart: heart rate and force decreased
- Lungs: bronchial muscles contracted
- Stomach: peristalsis increased and gastric juice secreted
- Liver: No change
- Kidneys: increased urine secretion
- Adrenal medulla: No change
Sunday, 2 June 2013
Muscle fibers
There are 3 types of muscle fibers:
Type 1 fibers; these are slow oxidative (slow twitch) muscle fibers that contain large amounts of myoglobin, this gives these muscle fibers their characteristic red colour. These muscle fibers are capable of carrying out aerobic exercise for hours on end, they are highly fatigue resistant.
Type IIa fibers; these are also red. They are used for long-duration anaerobic exertion typically lasting up to 30 minutes.
Type IIx fibers; these are white and are used for short-duration anaerobic exercise, typically lasting up to 5 minutes.
Type 1 fibers
These are slow twitch (also known as slow oxidative) muscle fibres that are red in colour due to their large volume of myoglobin, they contain many mitochondria and produce low power contractions. Due to their relatively high level of mitochondria and relatively low power output, these muscle fibres are specialised for low intensity endurance exertion. They are capable of maintaining their power output for hours of exercise. This type of muscle fibres is commonly found in muscles that are used very often during the day, like our postural muscles for example. They are linked to large numbers of blood vessels which supply them with a large volume of oxygen, among many other essential molecules and nutrients. The reason that so much oxygen is needed is because type I fibres split ATP by an aerobic mechanism (hence the name slow oxidative fibre). Without an adequate oxygen supply, these fibres would be unable to produce energy. Endurance runners rely heavily on these muscle fibres as they are highly resistant to fatigue.
Type IIa fibers
These are fast twitch muscle fibers, though they are the slowest of the fast twitch fibers. They contract at around 5 times the speed of slow twitch fibers. They produce energy through oxidative processes just like the type I fibers, though they have less mitochondria and have a higher power output. They are also red due to a high myoglobin content. They contain many blood vessels to supply this oxygen need and are consequently resistant to fatigue, though not as much as the type I fibers. In many ways they can be considered to possess a mixture of both type I and type IIb muscle fiber characteristics. Their main storage fuels are glycogen and creatine phosphate. However, these muscle fibers are uncommon in humans, but through training it is possible to convert type IIb fibers into type IIa fibers. Training of any kind causes type IIa fibers to be formed in the body, due to their increased efficiency at generating energy.
Type IIx fibers
These are typically referred to as type IIb fibers as they were once indistinguishable and many people recognise them as being different. Type IIx fibers are present in humans the IIb fibers are present in other animals. The IIX muscle fibers are white due to a low myoglobin content and produce energy anaerobically, therefore they contain few blood vessels and few mitochondria. THeir main storage fuel is creatine phosphate though they also contain glycogen. They are extremely fast twitch and are also known as fast glycolytic fibers. A consequence of their high power output is that they fatigue rapidly and are also inefficient in producing energy. Whenever a person trains, these fibers are converted into IIa fibers, no matter what type of training is undergone. This is because the IIA fibers are more energy efficient and the human body favours efficiency over power. For this reason, even though these fibers are most useful in sprinters, the people with the higher type IIb fiber content in their muscles are those who do barely any exercise at all.
Myoglobin
Myoglobin is an intracellular oxygen storage protein that is found in both cardiac and skeletal muscle tissue, it is the protein that is responsible for the red colouration of these muscles. It has a capacity for one oxygen molecule (O2), equivalent to two oxygen atoms. It is rare to find myoglobin in the blood stream of humans and this is typically an indicator of muscular damage. As myoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen, it is used by muscles in times of oxygen deprivation. This is because the myoglobin binds to oxygen when there are low concentrations of oxygen and only dissociates when these concentrations become very low. This means that only when there is extremely little oxygen contained within the muscles, will the myoglobin release the oxygen bound to it. Consequently, myoglobin is very beneficial during intense exercise and breath-holding.
Haemoglobin
This is an oxygen transport protein that is primarily found in red blood cells. When it is bound to oxygen molecules it has 2 forms. The first form is a tense (T) form and the second is a relaxed (R) form. The tense form is the one which is most likely to give up its oxygen to surrounding cells. The form of haemoglobin when bound to oxygen (called oxyhaemoglobin) is dependent upon the environment in which the protein finds itself. An environment contained a high concentration of carbon dioxide, low concentration of oxygen and low pH favours the tense form and conversely a low concentration of carbon dioxide, high concentration of oxygen and high pH favours the relaxed form. The tense form of oxyhaemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen and so releases it much more readily. This is of great benefit for the body when red blood cells pass by respiring tissue. As the tissue is using up all of the surrounding oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide, and this carbon dioxide subsequently forms carbonic acid (which lowers the pH), it follows that the oxyhaemoglobin is much more likely to dissociate from its oxygen molecules and therefore supply the tissue with oxygen and allow it to continue exerting itself for longer periods of time.
Bohr Effect
The essence of the Bohr effect is that as pH decreases and the concentration of carbon dioxide increases, the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen decreases, under such conditions oxyhaemoglobin dissociates from its oxygen more readily. Respiring tissue releases elevated levels of carbon dioxide which are converted by carbonic anhydrase (an enzyme present in red blood cells) into carbonic acid. This acid lowers the pH of the blood. These effects compound each other to improve the oxygenation of respiring tissue. When we breathe out too much carbon dioxide, either through rapid or too-high volume-per-minute breathing, we deplete our bodies of carbon dioxide and this means that the haemoglobin in our blood remains attached to its oxygen and system-wide hypoxia may result. This happens most often when we are stressed and is most noticeable due to its associated light-headedness.
Type 1 fibers; these are slow oxidative (slow twitch) muscle fibers that contain large amounts of myoglobin, this gives these muscle fibers their characteristic red colour. These muscle fibers are capable of carrying out aerobic exercise for hours on end, they are highly fatigue resistant.
Type IIa fibers; these are also red. They are used for long-duration anaerobic exertion typically lasting up to 30 minutes.
Type IIx fibers; these are white and are used for short-duration anaerobic exercise, typically lasting up to 5 minutes.
Type 1 fibers
These are slow twitch (also known as slow oxidative) muscle fibres that are red in colour due to their large volume of myoglobin, they contain many mitochondria and produce low power contractions. Due to their relatively high level of mitochondria and relatively low power output, these muscle fibres are specialised for low intensity endurance exertion. They are capable of maintaining their power output for hours of exercise. This type of muscle fibres is commonly found in muscles that are used very often during the day, like our postural muscles for example. They are linked to large numbers of blood vessels which supply them with a large volume of oxygen, among many other essential molecules and nutrients. The reason that so much oxygen is needed is because type I fibres split ATP by an aerobic mechanism (hence the name slow oxidative fibre). Without an adequate oxygen supply, these fibres would be unable to produce energy. Endurance runners rely heavily on these muscle fibres as they are highly resistant to fatigue.
Type IIa fibers
These are fast twitch muscle fibers, though they are the slowest of the fast twitch fibers. They contract at around 5 times the speed of slow twitch fibers. They produce energy through oxidative processes just like the type I fibers, though they have less mitochondria and have a higher power output. They are also red due to a high myoglobin content. They contain many blood vessels to supply this oxygen need and are consequently resistant to fatigue, though not as much as the type I fibers. In many ways they can be considered to possess a mixture of both type I and type IIb muscle fiber characteristics. Their main storage fuels are glycogen and creatine phosphate. However, these muscle fibers are uncommon in humans, but through training it is possible to convert type IIb fibers into type IIa fibers. Training of any kind causes type IIa fibers to be formed in the body, due to their increased efficiency at generating energy.
Type IIx fibers
These are typically referred to as type IIb fibers as they were once indistinguishable and many people recognise them as being different. Type IIx fibers are present in humans the IIb fibers are present in other animals. The IIX muscle fibers are white due to a low myoglobin content and produce energy anaerobically, therefore they contain few blood vessels and few mitochondria. THeir main storage fuel is creatine phosphate though they also contain glycogen. They are extremely fast twitch and are also known as fast glycolytic fibers. A consequence of their high power output is that they fatigue rapidly and are also inefficient in producing energy. Whenever a person trains, these fibers are converted into IIa fibers, no matter what type of training is undergone. This is because the IIA fibers are more energy efficient and the human body favours efficiency over power. For this reason, even though these fibers are most useful in sprinters, the people with the higher type IIb fiber content in their muscles are those who do barely any exercise at all.
Myoglobin
Myoglobin is an intracellular oxygen storage protein that is found in both cardiac and skeletal muscle tissue, it is the protein that is responsible for the red colouration of these muscles. It has a capacity for one oxygen molecule (O2), equivalent to two oxygen atoms. It is rare to find myoglobin in the blood stream of humans and this is typically an indicator of muscular damage. As myoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen, it is used by muscles in times of oxygen deprivation. This is because the myoglobin binds to oxygen when there are low concentrations of oxygen and only dissociates when these concentrations become very low. This means that only when there is extremely little oxygen contained within the muscles, will the myoglobin release the oxygen bound to it. Consequently, myoglobin is very beneficial during intense exercise and breath-holding.
Haemoglobin
This is an oxygen transport protein that is primarily found in red blood cells. When it is bound to oxygen molecules it has 2 forms. The first form is a tense (T) form and the second is a relaxed (R) form. The tense form is the one which is most likely to give up its oxygen to surrounding cells. The form of haemoglobin when bound to oxygen (called oxyhaemoglobin) is dependent upon the environment in which the protein finds itself. An environment contained a high concentration of carbon dioxide, low concentration of oxygen and low pH favours the tense form and conversely a low concentration of carbon dioxide, high concentration of oxygen and high pH favours the relaxed form. The tense form of oxyhaemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen and so releases it much more readily. This is of great benefit for the body when red blood cells pass by respiring tissue. As the tissue is using up all of the surrounding oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide, and this carbon dioxide subsequently forms carbonic acid (which lowers the pH), it follows that the oxyhaemoglobin is much more likely to dissociate from its oxygen molecules and therefore supply the tissue with oxygen and allow it to continue exerting itself for longer periods of time.
Bohr Effect
The essence of the Bohr effect is that as pH decreases and the concentration of carbon dioxide increases, the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen decreases, under such conditions oxyhaemoglobin dissociates from its oxygen more readily. Respiring tissue releases elevated levels of carbon dioxide which are converted by carbonic anhydrase (an enzyme present in red blood cells) into carbonic acid. This acid lowers the pH of the blood. These effects compound each other to improve the oxygenation of respiring tissue. When we breathe out too much carbon dioxide, either through rapid or too-high volume-per-minute breathing, we deplete our bodies of carbon dioxide and this means that the haemoglobin in our blood remains attached to its oxygen and system-wide hypoxia may result. This happens most often when we are stressed and is most noticeable due to its associated light-headedness.
Everything I Know: Anxiety
Welcome to this post containing everything I know about anxiety. The reason that I have made this post is because when I was researching the Buteyko breathing and magnesium topics covered elsewhere on this blog, I came across many anxiety forums. It seemed that many of the people that were using both Buteyko and magnesium also had anxiety of some form. By going through these forums I came across a lot of information. Eventually it got to the point where I would be looking up a particular magnesium supplement and I would find that the people on these forums were asking each other questions about other natural methods and treatments for anxiety that I had already come across. I decided to make this post for that reason. Here you will find everything I ever came across with regard to anxiety, with all of the medical studies I could find, with details of how people on forums responded to them and their relative safety and efficacy. If you try anything that I talk about here please comment below to tell me if it helped, made your condition worse, or had no effect. Also bear in mind that everybody is different, and something that worked for somebody else may not necessarily work for you.
- Breathing in general: breathe through your nose at all times and into your belly. Breathing slowly allows carbon dioxide to accumulate which is calming. Breathe only as slow as is comfortable, but still as slow as you can. When feeling stressed make a conscious effort to extend your exhales, many people find stress-relief from breathing in for 4 seconds and breathing out as slowly as possible until there is an air hunger. You will maybe feel a lot less anxious if you breathe in for 4 seconds and out for, say 10 seconds. Remember: 1) always breathe through your nose and 2) always breathe into your abdominal area.
- Buteyko breathing: this goes back to the time that I went through Buteyko forums to see if there were enough anecdotal reports to justify myself trying it as an experiment. What I found was that out of the 33 positive reports that I gathered, 14 of these were anxiety-related. You can find all the information you need about Buteyko breathing on the internet but caution is advised if you attempt this without a practitioner. Breathing is a very important part of living, and its easy to underestimate its importance and cause damage by trying to carry out this breathing method alone. I also advise never doing a maximum control pause (this has caused panic attacks in some people) and remember that the function of a normal control pause is for measurement and helping beginners get used to air hunger, it is not a necessary tool for adapting to this technique. I would rate Buteyko breathing as 4 out of 5. There was one negative report on Buteyko breathing in which a person said breath holding caused a panic attack. This is why I have made it clear that the maximum control pause and even the ordinary control pause aren't necessary. The others all said that Buteyko helped them, with some stating that this technique was a huge help in dealing with severe anxiety. I recommend this once you have done a little research on the importance of breathing. It has minimal chance of causing harm as long as you listen to your body. In my opinion you should only ever create a slight level of air hunger in order to adapt to this technique. Also, I do not believe that the theory behind this method is correct, i.e. that it raises carbon dioxide levels to the extent that its practitioners believe. My opinion is that it raises carbon dioxide significantly, but only to the extent that occurs when switching from mouth breathing to nose breathing. However, I stand by this method completely in saying that it is effective for both anxiety and asthma, though I presently don't know why.
For the following supplements, if you are considering taking them, make sure you do your own research into the side effects. There were too many for me to list each one's potential adverse effects. Make sure that if there is a potential danger to these supplements that you confirm with a medical professional that they are, in fact, safe. Take special care if you are pregnant. I have also added my own rating based upon the studies and anecdotes that I came across for each one, this is almost entirely subjective but I feel that it would help you in deciding which things to try, considering there are so many listed below.
Vitamin D: Came across a few people that used vitamin D to cure panic disorder, I didn't know this was possible. Safe doses are 3,000 to 4,000 IUs. I once came across a story from a scientist giving a lecture on vitamin D supplementation who said that vitamin D intoxication is hard to do, he spoke of a man who used a supplement where the manufacturers had forgotten to dilute the vitamin D. Once he had tested the supplement he found that the man had taken around 1,000,000 IUs of vitamin D per day. Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cq1t9WqOD-0 (about 39:30 into this video_
- Niacinamide/Nicotinamide/Nicotinic acid amide: these terms all refer to the same thing, an amide version of the B vitamin niacin. Niacinamide differs from niacin in that supplementation with the former vitamin does not cause a flushing reaction. Some people notice profound lessening of anxiety immediately with niacinamide, others do not. Some sources say that it could take up to a month to feel the therapeutic benefits of niacinamide (I found that if people took a dose of 500 mg and it had no effect, they would take a higher dose of around 2 grams and if that didn't work, they would stop supplementing with niacinamide altogether). I am not sure if everyone with anxiety would benefit from niacinamide. If you are considering this supplement please check with a doctor beforehand and make sure that your liver is healthy. Niacinamide does not typically cause side effects in moderate doses; around 500 mg to 1,500 mg per day but it is better to check this with a medical health professional just in case. I rate niacinamide as being 4 out of 5. While it is unknown whether it is beneficial for everyone, those who had no alleviation of their symptoms didn't take it longer than around a week. Other people had complete removal of moderate to severe anxiety within this same timeframe. Tolerance seems to build slowly, over months.
- Tea: green (try decaffeinated as caffeine is a major contributor to anxiety), the theanine in green tea is a known anxiolytic (anxiety-splitting) agent. Alternatively, skip the tea and supplement with theanine alone. Other beneficial teas include; chamomile, valerian, and Linden, though I'm sure there are more.
- Chamomile: Based on what I've seen on chamomile it does seem to be an effective agent in reducing anxiety. However, take care if you have asthma, are pregnant, or are allergic to plants in the daisy family. Apart from this, chamomile is described as being one of the safest herbs to take. Low doses typically help anxiety while higher doses help you get to sleep. I rate Chamomile as being 2 out of 5. It is beneficial for mild and perhaps moderate anxiety but a tolerance does build up quite quickly to it (within a week or 2) and high doses can cause diarrhoea.
- Valerian: this is a herb that is generally regarded as being safe to use. Some say it has helped their anxiety though it doesn't seem to have much effect in treating severe anxiety. Fresh roots seem to have the greatest effect. I rate Valerian as being 3 out of 5. If you wish to try this, make sure you get fresh roots. Tolerance can build up within a couple of weeks.
- Theanine: this has effects as a neurotransmitter and while it is calming, it has a similar shape to an excitatory neurotransmitter; glutamate. However, theanine has a weak affinity for glutamate receptors in neurons, so it doesn't cause excitability in moderate doses. There is scientific evidence to show that theanine can reduce anticipatory anxiety and also stress when performing tasks while improving focus and helping patients with ADHD sleep. It seems that the only form of theanine supplementation that is effective is called "suntheanine". This appears to be effective in reducing anxiety for most, but not all people, though a moderate tolerance to it is quickly induced. This supplement may cause headaches. I rate this as being 2 out of 5. Despite having numerous studies supporting its beneficial effects, this supplement induces a rather rapid tolerance (within 1 or 2 weeks), may cause headaches, and its best effect is more to increase concentration than to alleviate anxiety. It may be a useful additive that could be taken a few times per week but isn't overly effective by itself.
- Omega-3: based on medical studies and forum reports where people supplemented with omega-3; I think that this would be a worthwhile supplement for anxiety and also depression. Everyone that I came across (and also in the studies) used around 3 grams of omega-3 supplements per day to alleviate depression and anxiety. Below this, mental health wasn't improved. I rate this as being 3 out of 5. This is mostly for its lack of side effects. This could be a relatively safe additive and I at least haven't heard of any tolerance being built up.
- Magnesium: there was a study in which mice were deprived of magnesium from their diets and showed both depression and anxiety-like symptoms. I'll include this study at a later stage, right now I'm just firing out everything I know that could possibly help. Also, when I went through many forum posts on magnesium I found that probably around half of the people were using magnesium supplements for either relaxation or anxiety-related reasons. I rate magnesium as being 3 out of 5 for anxiety, although it could be a lot better than I realise. Studies have shown that when we are anxious we excrete extra magnesium as well as phosphorus. Therefore, those suffering from anxiety must consume more magnesium than an otherwise healthy individual.
- Glycine: this is an amino acid that also acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the activity of neurons and can reduce anxiety. Glycine also acts as a co-agonist along with glutamate for NMDA receptors. Therefore, while moderate dosages of glycine can have a calming effect, too much can cause increased anxiety.
- Magnesium Glycinate: I felt that this was important enough to have its own section. Combining magnesium and glycine in this way allows the magnesium to be better absorbed within the body. It also provides anxiolytic properties from each component for added efficacy.
- Dairy products: if you have anxiety, cut down on these and see if it makes a difference, they contain high levels of calcium, a mineral that doubles as an excitatory neurotransmitter. If you have an excess of excitatory neurotransmitters, you can end up feeling anxiety for no reason. The chances are that you already gain enough calcium from your diet to avoid the necessity of supplementation, for those of you that are considering, or are already taking, calcium supplements.
- GABA: this is an amino acid that is also the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter within mammals. Increasing the level of GABA within the central nervous system can increase the amount of alpha waves that the brain produces. This causes a person to feel more relaxed yet alert. GABA's role as an inhibitory neurotransmitter is of critical importance to anxiety disorders. By increasing the amount of GABA, you decrease the amount of anxiety in people. Two of the main GABA supplements that I came across are called Phenibut and Picamilon. I personally consider these to be unsafe but I may be wrong. I suggest that if you consider GABA supplementation to be of possible benefit, then you should research both of these supplements rigorously and then speak to a medical professional about their safety. Make sure that if you do take them that you know their effects on the drugs that you may also be taking in conjunction with them. I noticed with Phenibut especially that anecdotal reports claim you can become tolerant to this if you use it more than 2-3 times per day and can experience withdrawal symptoms if you use it every day for only one week. Withdrawal symptoms can include severe anxiety and this supplement should be taken with caution. I rate GABA supplements as being 2 out of 5. They seem highly effective, but I am wary of their side effects and addictive nature. I wouldn't recommend these though they certainly do reduce anxiety.
- Kava-kava: this is made from the roots of a plant and is well known for its relaxing qualities. It can relieve anxiety, reduce pain, and help with sleeplessness. It seems to be used by a lot of people with anxiety who say it has noticeable relaxing effects. However, caution should be taken when using this drug as it may cause liver damage. For this reason it shouldn't be used in conjunction with alcohol. It also shouldn't be used with many prescription medications as it could adversely interact with these as well. From what I've seen and heard, the kava root powder or paste appear to be the best forms, taking these after consuming oily foods may improve their effectiveness. I found mixed results for people supplementing with kava, it seems to be a case of finding a very good source, though this is very difficult considering it was banned quite recently and manufacturers might take a while to invest into it again. I rate kava as 3 out of 5, just make sure that you buy it from a well-known company and check the reviews of the product to make sure that it is effective. Also, tolerance to this can build quickly so it shouldn't be taken everyday of the week.
- St. John's Wort: this is a herbal remedy that has been used for both depression and anxiety. In some studies it has been shown to be just as effective as prescription medication and more than placebos for people suffering from depression. However, care should be taken when combining St. John's Wort with SSRIs (selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors) or serotonin-boosting medication as serotonin toxicity may result. The Mayoclinic considers St John's Wort to have "strong scientific evidence" for use in treating mild to moderate depressive disorders. However, it also states that there is unclear scientific evidence for its application for anxiety disorders. I rate St. John's Wort as 1 out of 5 for anxiety, there was no clear evidence, scientific or anecdotal, of its benefit for anxiety disorders. It may work however, but this is just my opinion.
- Passionflower: this is another herb that is considered to be quite safe. It seems to be of benefit to many people with anxiety and this is backed by scientific research although more studies are needed for proof. I recommend trying this once you are aware of the side effects and possible drug interactions. I rate passionflower as 3.5 out of 5. This is because some people used it to successfully reduce severe anxiety and it has a relatively low chance of side effects. Again, care should be taken to avoid building up a tolerance.
- Alcohol: I would suggest cutting down on alcohol if you have elevated anxiety. Using alcohol as a coping mechanism can lead to a dependency and alcohol addiction in itself is a major cause of anxiety. Also, even if you aren't taking it to such a huge extent, the hangovers can wear you out and this will definitely increase your anxiety.
- High glycemic foods (sugars): These can cause huge blood sugar spikes which can make your mind race and wander and isn't desirable for those suffering from anxiety. Also, the inevitable sugar crash can leave you feeling drained and lethargic.
Correct Breathing: (This breathing section is an extract from "Everything I Know: Breathing", and is covered more fully on that page.)
Close your mouth and press your tongue against the back of your two front teeth, breathe entirely through your nose. Make sure that you are breathing into the lower portion of your lungs. To check that you are doing this correctly, place the palm of your left hand on your belly button and your right hand on your chest. As you breathe in, notice which hand moves most. Ideally, your left hand should be pushed out by your inhale and your right hand should barely move, if at all. This should be how you should be breathing in all circumstances, apart from real danger (being chased by a lion for example). If you have a panic attack, probably the fastest way to stop the panic is by changing to this style of breathing. To get the best anti-stress results from breathing you should aim to breathe in for around 4 seconds and then breathe out for as long as is comfortable. In general, inhalations stimulate the sympathetic nervous system while exhalations stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system. Therefore, if your exhalations are longer than your inhalations you will feel much calmer. If you practise this you can get to a point where you will breathe in for 4 seconds and out for over 20 seconds. As you do this you'll notice that all of the muscles in your body become naturally inclined to relax.
Diaphragmatic breathing:
It is important to breathe into the diaphragm as this is where the highest proportion of blood vessels are within the lungs. It has been shown that the upper 7% of your lungs will only take in 4 ml of oxygen per minute whereas the lower 13% of your lungs will take in around 60 ml per minute. Also, using diaphragmatic breathing requires so much less energy to perform that it requires less than 5% of total oxygen intake. If you are over-breathing the energy requirement goes up massively, when volunteers were told to hyperventilate on purpose they used up 30% of their oxygen intake just to breathe in this way. So by breathing into the diaphragm, you not only take up a significantly larger volume of oxygen into your blood, but you also reduce the amount of oxygen (and energy) that you waste in performing the breathing itself.
Nasal breathing:
The nose is the narrowest place in the respiratory tract, it creates a bottleneck that results in airflow being restricted before it travels into the lungs. Compared to the mouth, it requires 1.5 times the amount of energy to pull the same volume of air through the nose.
Within the nasal cavity are bony projections called turbinates They heat and humidify air that is drawn through the nose and into the lungs. This reduces the damage that air causes to the lungs. The nose is also useful in breathing because it filters the air that is drawn into it. This takes place because there are many small hairs on the inside of the nose. This means that we take in less bacteria every time we breathe and consequently, our immune systems are less likely to become overworked. It is estimated that when these particles are caught in the nose hairs and/or mucus within the nose, that they are removed from the body within 15 minutes. However, if they travelled to the lungs they would take a few months to remove. Every time you breathe through your mouth you send these particles to your lungs and increase your chance of having a lung infection.
It is said that while breathing through your nose, if you are breathing through the right nostril you will be more inclined towards energetic pursuits, or those involving aggression. Conversely, breathing through the left nostril is associated with feelings of calm and introspection. Over the course of a day, the airflow between the nostrils will change of its own accord. You may wake up, for example, breathing through the left nostril and by midday realise that there is more air coming out of your right nostril.
In a study in which volunteers were subjected to a stress test, with some participants breathing through their mouth and the others through their nose, those who breathed nasally experienced brain wave activity that indicated greater relaxation.
Nitric oxide is also present in the nose and the slowing of air as it enter the nasal cavity allows nitric oxide to mix with the incoming air. This causes nitric oxide to be taken into the lungs where it dilates the blood vessels (bronchodilation). This allows significantly more oxygen to be taken in by these blood vessels and is very beneficial to the overall health of the organism.
Breathing through the nose is also beneficial in that it forces our breathing to slow down and as a result, our bodies follow suit. This helps us to reduce stress and think more clearly.
Carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide is commonly referred to as a 'waste gas' from respiration. I feel that this is highly disrespectful to carbon dioxide. Your body requires a delicate balance of carbon dioxide, generally within 35 and 45 mmHg (millimetres of mercury at sea level, a pressure measurement) within the blood. If you breathe too quickly you approach the lower end of this scale and feel dizzy and if you breathe too slowly you approach the upper end of this scale and feel breathless. You need around 40 mmHg or above, if you have adapted to higher pressures of carbon dioxide, to function normally. Below this your cells aren't getting adequate oxygen. The reason for this is illustrated by the Bohr effect. Without going into too much detail, the essence of this is that your blood cells offload their oxygen (this is desirable) around cells that are producing more carbon dioxide. Hence, if you breathe too rapidly you deplete your body of carbon dioxide and the blood cells continue to carry oxygen around the body without giving it to cells and tissues that require it. The result of hyperventilation is an impaired ability to think, among many other signs. This is primarily because the brain is suffering from oxygen deprivation (even though you are breathing rapidly and getting a lot of oxygen into the body), because your level of carbon dioxide is inadequate.
In order to understand why correct breathing doesn't come naturally to many of us we need to consider the type of lifestyle that we all live. It is primarily one of emotionally suppression and stress, both of which cause us to tense our stomach muscles and breathe into our chest. This is a manifestation of the body's fight or flight response. I think a more illustrative way of thinking of the fight or flight responses are to consider them as being a response to Anticipated Exertion. This way it becomes easier to understand why our bodies react in the way that they do. For example, if we were to undergo physical activity then our cells would greatly increase their carbon dioxide production. If our body anticipates that we will undergo physical activity then it naturally begins to breathe in a way that causes this carbon dioxide to be expelled. The problem occurs when our stressors are imaginary and we stay still. This causes us to lose carbon dioxide without producing more of it. The result is hyperventilation and strangely, increased stress.
Passionflower
Passionflower is a herb that is commonly used as an alternative treatment for anxiety. It is believed that its anxiolytic properties stem (no pun intended) from its ability to increase GABA within the brain. It is typically used in conjunction with other herbs, for example, Valerian root. While passionflower is generally considered safe, it may cause nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, rapid heart rate and sluggishness. It may also cause liver failure in rare cases.
Very few people said that passionflower had no effect on them and this may be due to where they bought it from, though maybe even the best source doesn't work for everyone. Many people used passionflower successfully to treat even severe anxiety and cure mild anxiety.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11679026 - in a study of 36 people diagnosed with generalised anxiety, a passionflower extract was compared against oxazepam. Both approaches showed similar improvements but passionflower took longer to take effect yet caused less impairment of job performance.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21294203 - passionflower may improve sleep quality, a 41 person study.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12244887 - a review of studies on passionflower implying it has proven sedative and perhaps anxiolytic effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11679027 - 65 opiates addicts received either clonidine plus passiflora extract in a tablet or clonidine plus placebo in a tablet. Both treatments were equally effective in treating the physical effects of withdrawal but the addition of passiflora extract showed a marked improvement in treatment of the mental symptoms.
Valerian
Valerian is a herb that may have anxiolytic effects. There are many types of Valerian but the one considered to be the most effective is Valeriana officinalis. Typical dosages for Valerian range from around 250 mg to 600 mg per day. The calming effects of Valerian are thought to arise from this herb's ability to increase the amount of GABA within the brain. A tolerance can be built up to this herb (you begin to require ever higher dosages to gain the same beneficial effects) so it is recommended that you don't take it for more than a few weeks without a break. It is considered generally safe within the recommended dosage, however it may adversely react with or exacerbate the effects of medications and alcohol.
According to anecdotes, the best results come with fresh Valerian roots and consequently a lot of company forms of Valerian which aren't fresh, seem ineffective. The general consensus on Valerian supplementation is that it can cause a small to moderate reduction in anxiety, but seems ineffective in cases of extreme anxiety.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17054208 - a randomised control trial involving 36 participants with generalised anxiety disorder, those taking Valerian had no significant decrease in anxiety compared to placebo.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20042323 - a study on mice: Valerian extract and valerenic acid caused a significant reduction in anxiety-related behaviour compared to an ethanol control group.
GABA
*From what I've seen regarding Phenibut and Picamilon, I would be very cautious with both of them. Picamilon seems to me to be the safer alternative, though studies are lacking. I'm afraid I wouldn't recommend either of these but if you feel that it would be beneficial then please do a lot of your own research first and then check with a medical professional. It may be that I came across some negative anecdotal reports at the start of reading into these supplements and this put me off them completely.
GABA is considered to be the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammals. For this reason it is considered to be fundamentally important in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Most if not all of the supplements that I have currently looked into have had some connection with GABA receptors. There are 2 main oral supplements utilising the effects of GABA: Phenibut and Picamilon. Both of these were made with the purpose of passing through the blood-brain barrier.It is believed that GABA has difficulty in doing this by itself (I have not seen proof of this) and this is necessary for inhibition of neuronal excitation, therefore supplementation of a GABA form that can enter the brain is important.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16971751 - this is a review of 2 studies involving a total of 21 study subjects. In the first study it was found that GABA administration caused a change in brain activity, by increasing the alpha waves produced by the participants. This occurred within an hour of the administration. People producing more alpha brain waves experience a more relaxed and alert state of mind. In the second study it was found that those who took GABA instead of a placebo had significantly higher immunoglobin A while facing a phobia (they crossed a bridge and were afraid of heights). The significance of this is that when we are afraid our immune systems decrease in activity. The fact that GABA maintained a higher level of immunoglobin A in these participants shows that their immune systems were less affected by the situation and strongly implies that the GABA induced relaxation. Together, these studies provide evidence that GABA is beneficial against anxiety, though in total only 21 participants have been tested.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12467378 - an abstract pointing out that glutamate is the main excitatory and GABA is the main inihibitory neurotransmitter within the brain.
- Phenibut
Phenibut is a chemical that mimics the effects of GABA. According to anecdotal reports from users, it seems that tolerance to phenibut is easily attained and withdrawal effects can occur even if you have only been taking the supplement for about a week. The withdrawal symptoms seem pretty horrific, with one of the worst symptoms being extreme anxiety. For this reason many people use phenibut about twice per week. Phenibut may also increase the effects of sedative drugs and alcohol and ideally shouldn't been taken in conjunction with these. There also seems to be the possibility of liver damage and probably many other side effects that haven't yet been discovered. I couldn't find human studies on this drug and for that reason I would be wary of trying it.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11830761 - phenibut is used in Russia for a variety of ailments, particularly in relation to stress, e.g. anxiety, depression, PTSD etc.
- Picamilon
Picamilon is a chemical that is formed from the combination of GABA and niacin. It crosses the blood-brain barrier and is subsequently hydrolysed to GABA and niacin. Apart from the potential anxiolytic effects of GABA, the niacin can also act as a vasodilator. This means that picamilon could also be beneficial for migraines. Anecdotal reports claim that this supplement is quite safe, and may relieve headaches. As far as anxiolytic effects go, the results are mixed. Some people report significant benefit and others very little.
Niacinamide
Niacinamide and nicotinamide and nicotinic acid amide are three names used for the same compound, an amide of nicotinic acid, also known as niacin. Nicotinamide is a B vitamin with potential anxiolytic effects. It is not to be confused with niacin, as this molecule can cause a flushing reaction in which a person's face, neck, chest, and maybe even whole body turns red and becomes warmer. Nicotinamide rarely causes this same reaction and is the preferred form used for anxiety treatment. I have seen people on forums taking around 500 mg to 2,000 mg per day. Some of these people have noticed an instant effect whereby their extreme anxiety is practically eliminated, and others notice no effect whatsoever. According to a few websites it can take up to a month for the therapeutic benefits of niacinamide to be felt. I am unsure if this is a beneficial treatment for everyone with anxiety. Dosages of 500 mg to 3,000 mg may be be safe though some people take up to 6,000 mg from what I've seen. I don't know what side effects would occur from such high doses and recommend that if you are considering taking niacinamide that you check with a doctor beforehand. Side effects are considered uncommon with this supplement but could occur at higher doses, for example, liver damage.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7913840 - nicotinamide has anxiolytic effects and reduces fights in conflict situations.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6101294 - nicotinamide might interact with the benzodiazepine receptors in the brain. Others believe that nicotinamide has a weak affinity for this receptor but may bring about anxiolytic effects in a different way to benzodiazepine.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6125374 - a possible alternative mechanism whereby molecules like nicotinamide may cause anxiolytic effects, by acting on receptor sites associated with benzodiazepine receptors as opposed to acting on the benzodiazepine receptors themselves.
Chamomile
From what I've seen on chamomile, and based on its relative safety, I would suggest chamomile as being beneficial for most people with anxiety. It is by no means a cure but it should help. Just make sure that you aren't allergic to it or have any health conditions that may be adversely affected.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19593179 - 28 patients with mild to moderate generalised anxiety disorder took Matricaria recutita (chamomile) extract for 8 weeks. A "significantly greater reduction in mean total HAM-A" (subjective anxiety rating) was observed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16628544 - this review states that animal studies show some anxiolytic effects of chamomile, though human studies testing chamomile tea are non-existent.
There have been surprisingly few human studies on chamomile but I've seen loads of people take it and no one has mentioned side effects. The vast majority of people report noticeable calming and find it easier to get to sleep when taking chamomile tea. This is also considered to be one of the safest herbs that you can take, although care is advised for pregnant women as it may increase the risk of miscarriage and there can be allergic reactions to it. It may also exacerbate asthmatic symptoms. There will be a trial ending in June 2014 that will last 38 weeks, to determine the long-term effects of chamomile. This will give an indication of what sort of tolerance is built up to chamomile.
Kava-kava
Searching through the forums on this one was utterly confusing. There were so many forms of kava and added to the fact that there are so many companies and qualities of each individual source, I cannot say for sure which kava form is the most effective. However, it seems like the kava root powder or kava paste are among the best and for best results some people suggest taking oily foods or supplements beforehand as these forms are oil-soluble and this aids absorption. I can't comment on the effectiveness though, so many people had tried each form of kava with wildly different results.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12076477 - A review of 7 trials involving kava was made. Kava was found to have significant effects in reducing anxiety and with only mild, adverse reactions to the extract.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12535473 - A review of 11 trials found the same results; significant reduction of anxiety and only mild adverse effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23348842 - a 6 week study showing no adverse effects due to kava.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1930344 - 29 patients with anxiety syndrome took kava extract (WS 1490), 300 mg per day, and found it caused significant reduction in anxiety after only 1 week of treatment. No adverse events occurred due to the drug.
There were many more studies done on kava, all of the ones that I came across pointed to the same conclusion, that kava causes statistically significant reductions in anxiety with only mild adverse effects. The potential problem with kava is that it may cause liver toxicity in rare cases. It is unsure at this stage whether the liver toxicity was caused by the kava alone, or in combination with other medications, drugs, or viruses etc. It may also be that the form of kava used by these people was unsafe or impure. It seems that the toxicity of the kava plant may be avoided by using the rhizomes. The stem and leaves apparently contain much more toxic substances. This would explain why locals who use kava experience much fewer and less severe side effects through using only the rhizomes, whereas when the drug was imported, it contained extracts taken from the stem, leaves and rhizomes combined.
Omega-3
Summary: based on what I've seen on forums, people seem to benefit most from 3 to 4 grams of omega-3 supplementation per day. These people notice benefits with regard to anxiety and depression and it also keeps their skin healthier. I am unsure what the long-term effects of this level of supplementation are.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23051591 - 935 women were asked to give a detailed description of their diets. Those with the highest intake of DHA had a calculated 50% reduced chance of having an anxiety disorder. This study suggested a linear link between DHA intake and anxiety and as this was a very large trial it can't be easily discarded.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3191260/ - 68 medical students were sorted into either a placebo or omega-3 supplement group. Those who received 2.5 grams of omega-3s (containing around 2 grams of EPA and 350 mg of DHA) per day had statistically significant reductions in anxiety.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17110827 - 24 substance abusers were splint into a placebo or test group. 13 supplemented with 3 grams of omega-3 PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids). Those receiving the omega-3 capsules had a progressive decrease in anxiety as the trial went on (it lasted 3 months). 6 of these supplementers were then followed for an additional 3 months and were found to maintain a significantly decreased level of anxiety.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2275606/ - 22 substance abusers were split into a placebo or test group, the test group supplemented with 3 grams of omega-3 PUFAs daily, this lowered both their anxiety and anger levels. A higher plasma EPA correlated with decreased anxiety and higher DHA correlated with decreased anger.
I think probably the main problem with omega-3 consumption is that after going through the forums, everyone is taking around 1 gram per day. Upon further looking, everyone that I came across that noticed no benefit either didn't state their dosage or said they were taking up to around 1.2 grams of omega-3 per day. Everyone that said they were taking 3 or 4 grams had noticed significantly reduced anxiety.
Theanine
Summary: theanine seems to work for some people, the best source appears to be 'suntheanine', though some people still notice no benefits with this supplement. For those who do notice the benefits, a tolerance appears to be quickly induced, diminishing the effect within a couple of weeks. It's best effect seems to be in improving concentration as opposed to anything else. The only conclusive side effect that I came across was headaches.
These are all the studies that I could find which tested theanine's anxiolytic effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15378679 - some reduction in anticipatory anxiety but no effect during stressful situation (extremely small study, practically meaningless).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16930802 - theanine prevented heart rate increase in stressful situation (extremely small study, practically meaningless).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16759779 - no signs of toxicity or other adverse effects in mice given 4000 mg per kilogram of bodyweight over 13 weeks. This suggests that humans supplementing with theanine would be incredibly unlikely to suffer any adverse effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22214254 - theanine significantly improved sleep for patients with ADHD. No significant adverse effects. This was a moderately sized trial and was placebo-controlled (2 groups undertook the experiment, one group took the substance to be tested and the other took a placebo) and was double-blind (neither the volunteers nor the people in charge were aware of who received the substance under test or the placebo).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22819553 - theanine administration caused increased nitric oxide production in blood vessels leading to vasodilation of blood vessels. This improves blood flow and reduces blood pressure. This would be beneficial to people suffering from hypertension.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22707502 - theanine reduces adrenal hypertrophy in male mice housed with other males. It also reduced stress, depression and blocked the negative effects of caffeine. This suggests that drinking green tea may not cause the usual nervousness associated with caffeine intake as this would be counteracted by the theanine found within green tea.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23395732 - multiple beneficial effects of theanine on mice that were trapped (causing restraint-induced stress), this shows theanine can reverse some cognitive impairment in mice that have undergone stress, and most likely in humans as well.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23107346 - multiple benefits to theanine administration in human participants with a tendency toward high-stress responses while performing a mental task.
I also looked over a few forums and saw mixed results, I'd say around half of the people using theanine experienced reductions in anxiety while the rest noticed no change. Also, most of the people that used it said that they quickly developed a tolerance to it (usually within a couple of weeks). However, a lot of people said that the only good quality form of theanine was something called suntheanine, and I'm sure that most of the people on these forums hadn't used this particular form. The people who did use this form usually said it was effective.
- Breathing in general: breathe through your nose at all times and into your belly. Breathing slowly allows carbon dioxide to accumulate which is calming. Breathe only as slow as is comfortable, but still as slow as you can. When feeling stressed make a conscious effort to extend your exhales, many people find stress-relief from breathing in for 4 seconds and breathing out as slowly as possible until there is an air hunger. You will maybe feel a lot less anxious if you breathe in for 4 seconds and out for, say 10 seconds. Remember: 1) always breathe through your nose and 2) always breathe into your abdominal area.
- Buteyko breathing: this goes back to the time that I went through Buteyko forums to see if there were enough anecdotal reports to justify myself trying it as an experiment. What I found was that out of the 33 positive reports that I gathered, 14 of these were anxiety-related. You can find all the information you need about Buteyko breathing on the internet but caution is advised if you attempt this without a practitioner. Breathing is a very important part of living, and its easy to underestimate its importance and cause damage by trying to carry out this breathing method alone. I also advise never doing a maximum control pause (this has caused panic attacks in some people) and remember that the function of a normal control pause is for measurement and helping beginners get used to air hunger, it is not a necessary tool for adapting to this technique. I would rate Buteyko breathing as 4 out of 5. There was one negative report on Buteyko breathing in which a person said breath holding caused a panic attack. This is why I have made it clear that the maximum control pause and even the ordinary control pause aren't necessary. The others all said that Buteyko helped them, with some stating that this technique was a huge help in dealing with severe anxiety. I recommend this once you have done a little research on the importance of breathing. It has minimal chance of causing harm as long as you listen to your body. In my opinion you should only ever create a slight level of air hunger in order to adapt to this technique. Also, I do not believe that the theory behind this method is correct, i.e. that it raises carbon dioxide levels to the extent that its practitioners believe. My opinion is that it raises carbon dioxide significantly, but only to the extent that occurs when switching from mouth breathing to nose breathing. However, I stand by this method completely in saying that it is effective for both anxiety and asthma, though I presently don't know why.
For the following supplements, if you are considering taking them, make sure you do your own research into the side effects. There were too many for me to list each one's potential adverse effects. Make sure that if there is a potential danger to these supplements that you confirm with a medical professional that they are, in fact, safe. Take special care if you are pregnant. I have also added my own rating based upon the studies and anecdotes that I came across for each one, this is almost entirely subjective but I feel that it would help you in deciding which things to try, considering there are so many listed below.
Vitamin D: Came across a few people that used vitamin D to cure panic disorder, I didn't know this was possible. Safe doses are 3,000 to 4,000 IUs. I once came across a story from a scientist giving a lecture on vitamin D supplementation who said that vitamin D intoxication is hard to do, he spoke of a man who used a supplement where the manufacturers had forgotten to dilute the vitamin D. Once he had tested the supplement he found that the man had taken around 1,000,000 IUs of vitamin D per day. Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cq1t9WqOD-0 (about 39:30 into this video_
- Niacinamide/Nicotinamide/Nicotinic acid amide: these terms all refer to the same thing, an amide version of the B vitamin niacin. Niacinamide differs from niacin in that supplementation with the former vitamin does not cause a flushing reaction. Some people notice profound lessening of anxiety immediately with niacinamide, others do not. Some sources say that it could take up to a month to feel the therapeutic benefits of niacinamide (I found that if people took a dose of 500 mg and it had no effect, they would take a higher dose of around 2 grams and if that didn't work, they would stop supplementing with niacinamide altogether). I am not sure if everyone with anxiety would benefit from niacinamide. If you are considering this supplement please check with a doctor beforehand and make sure that your liver is healthy. Niacinamide does not typically cause side effects in moderate doses; around 500 mg to 1,500 mg per day but it is better to check this with a medical health professional just in case. I rate niacinamide as being 4 out of 5. While it is unknown whether it is beneficial for everyone, those who had no alleviation of their symptoms didn't take it longer than around a week. Other people had complete removal of moderate to severe anxiety within this same timeframe. Tolerance seems to build slowly, over months.
- Tea: green (try decaffeinated as caffeine is a major contributor to anxiety), the theanine in green tea is a known anxiolytic (anxiety-splitting) agent. Alternatively, skip the tea and supplement with theanine alone. Other beneficial teas include; chamomile, valerian, and Linden, though I'm sure there are more.
- Chamomile: Based on what I've seen on chamomile it does seem to be an effective agent in reducing anxiety. However, take care if you have asthma, are pregnant, or are allergic to plants in the daisy family. Apart from this, chamomile is described as being one of the safest herbs to take. Low doses typically help anxiety while higher doses help you get to sleep. I rate Chamomile as being 2 out of 5. It is beneficial for mild and perhaps moderate anxiety but a tolerance does build up quite quickly to it (within a week or 2) and high doses can cause diarrhoea.
- Valerian: this is a herb that is generally regarded as being safe to use. Some say it has helped their anxiety though it doesn't seem to have much effect in treating severe anxiety. Fresh roots seem to have the greatest effect. I rate Valerian as being 3 out of 5. If you wish to try this, make sure you get fresh roots. Tolerance can build up within a couple of weeks.
- Theanine: this has effects as a neurotransmitter and while it is calming, it has a similar shape to an excitatory neurotransmitter; glutamate. However, theanine has a weak affinity for glutamate receptors in neurons, so it doesn't cause excitability in moderate doses. There is scientific evidence to show that theanine can reduce anticipatory anxiety and also stress when performing tasks while improving focus and helping patients with ADHD sleep. It seems that the only form of theanine supplementation that is effective is called "suntheanine". This appears to be effective in reducing anxiety for most, but not all people, though a moderate tolerance to it is quickly induced. This supplement may cause headaches. I rate this as being 2 out of 5. Despite having numerous studies supporting its beneficial effects, this supplement induces a rather rapid tolerance (within 1 or 2 weeks), may cause headaches, and its best effect is more to increase concentration than to alleviate anxiety. It may be a useful additive that could be taken a few times per week but isn't overly effective by itself.
- Omega-3: based on medical studies and forum reports where people supplemented with omega-3; I think that this would be a worthwhile supplement for anxiety and also depression. Everyone that I came across (and also in the studies) used around 3 grams of omega-3 supplements per day to alleviate depression and anxiety. Below this, mental health wasn't improved. I rate this as being 3 out of 5. This is mostly for its lack of side effects. This could be a relatively safe additive and I at least haven't heard of any tolerance being built up.
- Magnesium: there was a study in which mice were deprived of magnesium from their diets and showed both depression and anxiety-like symptoms. I'll include this study at a later stage, right now I'm just firing out everything I know that could possibly help. Also, when I went through many forum posts on magnesium I found that probably around half of the people were using magnesium supplements for either relaxation or anxiety-related reasons. I rate magnesium as being 3 out of 5 for anxiety, although it could be a lot better than I realise. Studies have shown that when we are anxious we excrete extra magnesium as well as phosphorus. Therefore, those suffering from anxiety must consume more magnesium than an otherwise healthy individual.
- Glycine: this is an amino acid that also acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the activity of neurons and can reduce anxiety. Glycine also acts as a co-agonist along with glutamate for NMDA receptors. Therefore, while moderate dosages of glycine can have a calming effect, too much can cause increased anxiety.
- Magnesium Glycinate: I felt that this was important enough to have its own section. Combining magnesium and glycine in this way allows the magnesium to be better absorbed within the body. It also provides anxiolytic properties from each component for added efficacy.
- Dairy products: if you have anxiety, cut down on these and see if it makes a difference, they contain high levels of calcium, a mineral that doubles as an excitatory neurotransmitter. If you have an excess of excitatory neurotransmitters, you can end up feeling anxiety for no reason. The chances are that you already gain enough calcium from your diet to avoid the necessity of supplementation, for those of you that are considering, or are already taking, calcium supplements.
- GABA: this is an amino acid that is also the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter within mammals. Increasing the level of GABA within the central nervous system can increase the amount of alpha waves that the brain produces. This causes a person to feel more relaxed yet alert. GABA's role as an inhibitory neurotransmitter is of critical importance to anxiety disorders. By increasing the amount of GABA, you decrease the amount of anxiety in people. Two of the main GABA supplements that I came across are called Phenibut and Picamilon. I personally consider these to be unsafe but I may be wrong. I suggest that if you consider GABA supplementation to be of possible benefit, then you should research both of these supplements rigorously and then speak to a medical professional about their safety. Make sure that if you do take them that you know their effects on the drugs that you may also be taking in conjunction with them. I noticed with Phenibut especially that anecdotal reports claim you can become tolerant to this if you use it more than 2-3 times per day and can experience withdrawal symptoms if you use it every day for only one week. Withdrawal symptoms can include severe anxiety and this supplement should be taken with caution. I rate GABA supplements as being 2 out of 5. They seem highly effective, but I am wary of their side effects and addictive nature. I wouldn't recommend these though they certainly do reduce anxiety.
- Kava-kava: this is made from the roots of a plant and is well known for its relaxing qualities. It can relieve anxiety, reduce pain, and help with sleeplessness. It seems to be used by a lot of people with anxiety who say it has noticeable relaxing effects. However, caution should be taken when using this drug as it may cause liver damage. For this reason it shouldn't be used in conjunction with alcohol. It also shouldn't be used with many prescription medications as it could adversely interact with these as well. From what I've seen and heard, the kava root powder or paste appear to be the best forms, taking these after consuming oily foods may improve their effectiveness. I found mixed results for people supplementing with kava, it seems to be a case of finding a very good source, though this is very difficult considering it was banned quite recently and manufacturers might take a while to invest into it again. I rate kava as 3 out of 5, just make sure that you buy it from a well-known company and check the reviews of the product to make sure that it is effective. Also, tolerance to this can build quickly so it shouldn't be taken everyday of the week.
- St. John's Wort: this is a herbal remedy that has been used for both depression and anxiety. In some studies it has been shown to be just as effective as prescription medication and more than placebos for people suffering from depression. However, care should be taken when combining St. John's Wort with SSRIs (selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors) or serotonin-boosting medication as serotonin toxicity may result. The Mayoclinic considers St John's Wort to have "strong scientific evidence" for use in treating mild to moderate depressive disorders. However, it also states that there is unclear scientific evidence for its application for anxiety disorders. I rate St. John's Wort as 1 out of 5 for anxiety, there was no clear evidence, scientific or anecdotal, of its benefit for anxiety disorders. It may work however, but this is just my opinion.
- Passionflower: this is another herb that is considered to be quite safe. It seems to be of benefit to many people with anxiety and this is backed by scientific research although more studies are needed for proof. I recommend trying this once you are aware of the side effects and possible drug interactions. I rate passionflower as 3.5 out of 5. This is because some people used it to successfully reduce severe anxiety and it has a relatively low chance of side effects. Again, care should be taken to avoid building up a tolerance.
- Alcohol: I would suggest cutting down on alcohol if you have elevated anxiety. Using alcohol as a coping mechanism can lead to a dependency and alcohol addiction in itself is a major cause of anxiety. Also, even if you aren't taking it to such a huge extent, the hangovers can wear you out and this will definitely increase your anxiety.
- High glycemic foods (sugars): These can cause huge blood sugar spikes which can make your mind race and wander and isn't desirable for those suffering from anxiety. Also, the inevitable sugar crash can leave you feeling drained and lethargic.
Correct Breathing: (This breathing section is an extract from "Everything I Know: Breathing", and is covered more fully on that page.)
Close your mouth and press your tongue against the back of your two front teeth, breathe entirely through your nose. Make sure that you are breathing into the lower portion of your lungs. To check that you are doing this correctly, place the palm of your left hand on your belly button and your right hand on your chest. As you breathe in, notice which hand moves most. Ideally, your left hand should be pushed out by your inhale and your right hand should barely move, if at all. This should be how you should be breathing in all circumstances, apart from real danger (being chased by a lion for example). If you have a panic attack, probably the fastest way to stop the panic is by changing to this style of breathing. To get the best anti-stress results from breathing you should aim to breathe in for around 4 seconds and then breathe out for as long as is comfortable. In general, inhalations stimulate the sympathetic nervous system while exhalations stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system. Therefore, if your exhalations are longer than your inhalations you will feel much calmer. If you practise this you can get to a point where you will breathe in for 4 seconds and out for over 20 seconds. As you do this you'll notice that all of the muscles in your body become naturally inclined to relax.
Diaphragmatic breathing:
It is important to breathe into the diaphragm as this is where the highest proportion of blood vessels are within the lungs. It has been shown that the upper 7% of your lungs will only take in 4 ml of oxygen per minute whereas the lower 13% of your lungs will take in around 60 ml per minute. Also, using diaphragmatic breathing requires so much less energy to perform that it requires less than 5% of total oxygen intake. If you are over-breathing the energy requirement goes up massively, when volunteers were told to hyperventilate on purpose they used up 30% of their oxygen intake just to breathe in this way. So by breathing into the diaphragm, you not only take up a significantly larger volume of oxygen into your blood, but you also reduce the amount of oxygen (and energy) that you waste in performing the breathing itself.
Nasal breathing:
The nose is the narrowest place in the respiratory tract, it creates a bottleneck that results in airflow being restricted before it travels into the lungs. Compared to the mouth, it requires 1.5 times the amount of energy to pull the same volume of air through the nose.
Within the nasal cavity are bony projections called turbinates They heat and humidify air that is drawn through the nose and into the lungs. This reduces the damage that air causes to the lungs. The nose is also useful in breathing because it filters the air that is drawn into it. This takes place because there are many small hairs on the inside of the nose. This means that we take in less bacteria every time we breathe and consequently, our immune systems are less likely to become overworked. It is estimated that when these particles are caught in the nose hairs and/or mucus within the nose, that they are removed from the body within 15 minutes. However, if they travelled to the lungs they would take a few months to remove. Every time you breathe through your mouth you send these particles to your lungs and increase your chance of having a lung infection.
It is said that while breathing through your nose, if you are breathing through the right nostril you will be more inclined towards energetic pursuits, or those involving aggression. Conversely, breathing through the left nostril is associated with feelings of calm and introspection. Over the course of a day, the airflow between the nostrils will change of its own accord. You may wake up, for example, breathing through the left nostril and by midday realise that there is more air coming out of your right nostril.
In a study in which volunteers were subjected to a stress test, with some participants breathing through their mouth and the others through their nose, those who breathed nasally experienced brain wave activity that indicated greater relaxation.
Nitric oxide is also present in the nose and the slowing of air as it enter the nasal cavity allows nitric oxide to mix with the incoming air. This causes nitric oxide to be taken into the lungs where it dilates the blood vessels (bronchodilation). This allows significantly more oxygen to be taken in by these blood vessels and is very beneficial to the overall health of the organism.
Breathing through the nose is also beneficial in that it forces our breathing to slow down and as a result, our bodies follow suit. This helps us to reduce stress and think more clearly.
Carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide is commonly referred to as a 'waste gas' from respiration. I feel that this is highly disrespectful to carbon dioxide. Your body requires a delicate balance of carbon dioxide, generally within 35 and 45 mmHg (millimetres of mercury at sea level, a pressure measurement) within the blood. If you breathe too quickly you approach the lower end of this scale and feel dizzy and if you breathe too slowly you approach the upper end of this scale and feel breathless. You need around 40 mmHg or above, if you have adapted to higher pressures of carbon dioxide, to function normally. Below this your cells aren't getting adequate oxygen. The reason for this is illustrated by the Bohr effect. Without going into too much detail, the essence of this is that your blood cells offload their oxygen (this is desirable) around cells that are producing more carbon dioxide. Hence, if you breathe too rapidly you deplete your body of carbon dioxide and the blood cells continue to carry oxygen around the body without giving it to cells and tissues that require it. The result of hyperventilation is an impaired ability to think, among many other signs. This is primarily because the brain is suffering from oxygen deprivation (even though you are breathing rapidly and getting a lot of oxygen into the body), because your level of carbon dioxide is inadequate.
In order to understand why correct breathing doesn't come naturally to many of us we need to consider the type of lifestyle that we all live. It is primarily one of emotionally suppression and stress, both of which cause us to tense our stomach muscles and breathe into our chest. This is a manifestation of the body's fight or flight response. I think a more illustrative way of thinking of the fight or flight responses are to consider them as being a response to Anticipated Exertion. This way it becomes easier to understand why our bodies react in the way that they do. For example, if we were to undergo physical activity then our cells would greatly increase their carbon dioxide production. If our body anticipates that we will undergo physical activity then it naturally begins to breathe in a way that causes this carbon dioxide to be expelled. The problem occurs when our stressors are imaginary and we stay still. This causes us to lose carbon dioxide without producing more of it. The result is hyperventilation and strangely, increased stress.
Passionflower
Passionflower is a herb that is commonly used as an alternative treatment for anxiety. It is believed that its anxiolytic properties stem (no pun intended) from its ability to increase GABA within the brain. It is typically used in conjunction with other herbs, for example, Valerian root. While passionflower is generally considered safe, it may cause nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, rapid heart rate and sluggishness. It may also cause liver failure in rare cases.
Very few people said that passionflower had no effect on them and this may be due to where they bought it from, though maybe even the best source doesn't work for everyone. Many people used passionflower successfully to treat even severe anxiety and cure mild anxiety.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11679026 - in a study of 36 people diagnosed with generalised anxiety, a passionflower extract was compared against oxazepam. Both approaches showed similar improvements but passionflower took longer to take effect yet caused less impairment of job performance.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21294203 - passionflower may improve sleep quality, a 41 person study.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12244887 - a review of studies on passionflower implying it has proven sedative and perhaps anxiolytic effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11679027 - 65 opiates addicts received either clonidine plus passiflora extract in a tablet or clonidine plus placebo in a tablet. Both treatments were equally effective in treating the physical effects of withdrawal but the addition of passiflora extract showed a marked improvement in treatment of the mental symptoms.
Valerian
Valerian is a herb that may have anxiolytic effects. There are many types of Valerian but the one considered to be the most effective is Valeriana officinalis. Typical dosages for Valerian range from around 250 mg to 600 mg per day. The calming effects of Valerian are thought to arise from this herb's ability to increase the amount of GABA within the brain. A tolerance can be built up to this herb (you begin to require ever higher dosages to gain the same beneficial effects) so it is recommended that you don't take it for more than a few weeks without a break. It is considered generally safe within the recommended dosage, however it may adversely react with or exacerbate the effects of medications and alcohol.
According to anecdotes, the best results come with fresh Valerian roots and consequently a lot of company forms of Valerian which aren't fresh, seem ineffective. The general consensus on Valerian supplementation is that it can cause a small to moderate reduction in anxiety, but seems ineffective in cases of extreme anxiety.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17054208 - a randomised control trial involving 36 participants with generalised anxiety disorder, those taking Valerian had no significant decrease in anxiety compared to placebo.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20042323 - a study on mice: Valerian extract and valerenic acid caused a significant reduction in anxiety-related behaviour compared to an ethanol control group.
GABA
*From what I've seen regarding Phenibut and Picamilon, I would be very cautious with both of them. Picamilon seems to me to be the safer alternative, though studies are lacking. I'm afraid I wouldn't recommend either of these but if you feel that it would be beneficial then please do a lot of your own research first and then check with a medical professional. It may be that I came across some negative anecdotal reports at the start of reading into these supplements and this put me off them completely.
GABA is considered to be the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammals. For this reason it is considered to be fundamentally important in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Most if not all of the supplements that I have currently looked into have had some connection with GABA receptors. There are 2 main oral supplements utilising the effects of GABA: Phenibut and Picamilon. Both of these were made with the purpose of passing through the blood-brain barrier.It is believed that GABA has difficulty in doing this by itself (I have not seen proof of this) and this is necessary for inhibition of neuronal excitation, therefore supplementation of a GABA form that can enter the brain is important.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16971751 - this is a review of 2 studies involving a total of 21 study subjects. In the first study it was found that GABA administration caused a change in brain activity, by increasing the alpha waves produced by the participants. This occurred within an hour of the administration. People producing more alpha brain waves experience a more relaxed and alert state of mind. In the second study it was found that those who took GABA instead of a placebo had significantly higher immunoglobin A while facing a phobia (they crossed a bridge and were afraid of heights). The significance of this is that when we are afraid our immune systems decrease in activity. The fact that GABA maintained a higher level of immunoglobin A in these participants shows that their immune systems were less affected by the situation and strongly implies that the GABA induced relaxation. Together, these studies provide evidence that GABA is beneficial against anxiety, though in total only 21 participants have been tested.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12467378 - an abstract pointing out that glutamate is the main excitatory and GABA is the main inihibitory neurotransmitter within the brain.
- Phenibut
Phenibut is a chemical that mimics the effects of GABA. According to anecdotal reports from users, it seems that tolerance to phenibut is easily attained and withdrawal effects can occur even if you have only been taking the supplement for about a week. The withdrawal symptoms seem pretty horrific, with one of the worst symptoms being extreme anxiety. For this reason many people use phenibut about twice per week. Phenibut may also increase the effects of sedative drugs and alcohol and ideally shouldn't been taken in conjunction with these. There also seems to be the possibility of liver damage and probably many other side effects that haven't yet been discovered. I couldn't find human studies on this drug and for that reason I would be wary of trying it.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11830761 - phenibut is used in Russia for a variety of ailments, particularly in relation to stress, e.g. anxiety, depression, PTSD etc.
- Picamilon
Picamilon is a chemical that is formed from the combination of GABA and niacin. It crosses the blood-brain barrier and is subsequently hydrolysed to GABA and niacin. Apart from the potential anxiolytic effects of GABA, the niacin can also act as a vasodilator. This means that picamilon could also be beneficial for migraines. Anecdotal reports claim that this supplement is quite safe, and may relieve headaches. As far as anxiolytic effects go, the results are mixed. Some people report significant benefit and others very little.
Niacinamide
Niacinamide and nicotinamide and nicotinic acid amide are three names used for the same compound, an amide of nicotinic acid, also known as niacin. Nicotinamide is a B vitamin with potential anxiolytic effects. It is not to be confused with niacin, as this molecule can cause a flushing reaction in which a person's face, neck, chest, and maybe even whole body turns red and becomes warmer. Nicotinamide rarely causes this same reaction and is the preferred form used for anxiety treatment. I have seen people on forums taking around 500 mg to 2,000 mg per day. Some of these people have noticed an instant effect whereby their extreme anxiety is practically eliminated, and others notice no effect whatsoever. According to a few websites it can take up to a month for the therapeutic benefits of niacinamide to be felt. I am unsure if this is a beneficial treatment for everyone with anxiety. Dosages of 500 mg to 3,000 mg may be be safe though some people take up to 6,000 mg from what I've seen. I don't know what side effects would occur from such high doses and recommend that if you are considering taking niacinamide that you check with a doctor beforehand. Side effects are considered uncommon with this supplement but could occur at higher doses, for example, liver damage.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7913840 - nicotinamide has anxiolytic effects and reduces fights in conflict situations.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6101294 - nicotinamide might interact with the benzodiazepine receptors in the brain. Others believe that nicotinamide has a weak affinity for this receptor but may bring about anxiolytic effects in a different way to benzodiazepine.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6125374 - a possible alternative mechanism whereby molecules like nicotinamide may cause anxiolytic effects, by acting on receptor sites associated with benzodiazepine receptors as opposed to acting on the benzodiazepine receptors themselves.
Chamomile
From what I've seen on chamomile, and based on its relative safety, I would suggest chamomile as being beneficial for most people with anxiety. It is by no means a cure but it should help. Just make sure that you aren't allergic to it or have any health conditions that may be adversely affected.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19593179 - 28 patients with mild to moderate generalised anxiety disorder took Matricaria recutita (chamomile) extract for 8 weeks. A "significantly greater reduction in mean total HAM-A" (subjective anxiety rating) was observed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16628544 - this review states that animal studies show some anxiolytic effects of chamomile, though human studies testing chamomile tea are non-existent.
There have been surprisingly few human studies on chamomile but I've seen loads of people take it and no one has mentioned side effects. The vast majority of people report noticeable calming and find it easier to get to sleep when taking chamomile tea. This is also considered to be one of the safest herbs that you can take, although care is advised for pregnant women as it may increase the risk of miscarriage and there can be allergic reactions to it. It may also exacerbate asthmatic symptoms. There will be a trial ending in June 2014 that will last 38 weeks, to determine the long-term effects of chamomile. This will give an indication of what sort of tolerance is built up to chamomile.
Kava-kava
Searching through the forums on this one was utterly confusing. There were so many forms of kava and added to the fact that there are so many companies and qualities of each individual source, I cannot say for sure which kava form is the most effective. However, it seems like the kava root powder or kava paste are among the best and for best results some people suggest taking oily foods or supplements beforehand as these forms are oil-soluble and this aids absorption. I can't comment on the effectiveness though, so many people had tried each form of kava with wildly different results.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12076477 - A review of 7 trials involving kava was made. Kava was found to have significant effects in reducing anxiety and with only mild, adverse reactions to the extract.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12535473 - A review of 11 trials found the same results; significant reduction of anxiety and only mild adverse effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23348842 - a 6 week study showing no adverse effects due to kava.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1930344 - 29 patients with anxiety syndrome took kava extract (WS 1490), 300 mg per day, and found it caused significant reduction in anxiety after only 1 week of treatment. No adverse events occurred due to the drug.
There were many more studies done on kava, all of the ones that I came across pointed to the same conclusion, that kava causes statistically significant reductions in anxiety with only mild adverse effects. The potential problem with kava is that it may cause liver toxicity in rare cases. It is unsure at this stage whether the liver toxicity was caused by the kava alone, or in combination with other medications, drugs, or viruses etc. It may also be that the form of kava used by these people was unsafe or impure. It seems that the toxicity of the kava plant may be avoided by using the rhizomes. The stem and leaves apparently contain much more toxic substances. This would explain why locals who use kava experience much fewer and less severe side effects through using only the rhizomes, whereas when the drug was imported, it contained extracts taken from the stem, leaves and rhizomes combined.
Omega-3
Summary: based on what I've seen on forums, people seem to benefit most from 3 to 4 grams of omega-3 supplementation per day. These people notice benefits with regard to anxiety and depression and it also keeps their skin healthier. I am unsure what the long-term effects of this level of supplementation are.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23051591 - 935 women were asked to give a detailed description of their diets. Those with the highest intake of DHA had a calculated 50% reduced chance of having an anxiety disorder. This study suggested a linear link between DHA intake and anxiety and as this was a very large trial it can't be easily discarded.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3191260/ - 68 medical students were sorted into either a placebo or omega-3 supplement group. Those who received 2.5 grams of omega-3s (containing around 2 grams of EPA and 350 mg of DHA) per day had statistically significant reductions in anxiety.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17110827 - 24 substance abusers were splint into a placebo or test group. 13 supplemented with 3 grams of omega-3 PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids). Those receiving the omega-3 capsules had a progressive decrease in anxiety as the trial went on (it lasted 3 months). 6 of these supplementers were then followed for an additional 3 months and were found to maintain a significantly decreased level of anxiety.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2275606/ - 22 substance abusers were split into a placebo or test group, the test group supplemented with 3 grams of omega-3 PUFAs daily, this lowered both their anxiety and anger levels. A higher plasma EPA correlated with decreased anxiety and higher DHA correlated with decreased anger.
I think probably the main problem with omega-3 consumption is that after going through the forums, everyone is taking around 1 gram per day. Upon further looking, everyone that I came across that noticed no benefit either didn't state their dosage or said they were taking up to around 1.2 grams of omega-3 per day. Everyone that said they were taking 3 or 4 grams had noticed significantly reduced anxiety.
Theanine
Summary: theanine seems to work for some people, the best source appears to be 'suntheanine', though some people still notice no benefits with this supplement. For those who do notice the benefits, a tolerance appears to be quickly induced, diminishing the effect within a couple of weeks. It's best effect seems to be in improving concentration as opposed to anything else. The only conclusive side effect that I came across was headaches.
These are all the studies that I could find which tested theanine's anxiolytic effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15378679 - some reduction in anticipatory anxiety but no effect during stressful situation (extremely small study, practically meaningless).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16930802 - theanine prevented heart rate increase in stressful situation (extremely small study, practically meaningless).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16759779 - no signs of toxicity or other adverse effects in mice given 4000 mg per kilogram of bodyweight over 13 weeks. This suggests that humans supplementing with theanine would be incredibly unlikely to suffer any adverse effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22214254 - theanine significantly improved sleep for patients with ADHD. No significant adverse effects. This was a moderately sized trial and was placebo-controlled (2 groups undertook the experiment, one group took the substance to be tested and the other took a placebo) and was double-blind (neither the volunteers nor the people in charge were aware of who received the substance under test or the placebo).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22819553 - theanine administration caused increased nitric oxide production in blood vessels leading to vasodilation of blood vessels. This improves blood flow and reduces blood pressure. This would be beneficial to people suffering from hypertension.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22707502 - theanine reduces adrenal hypertrophy in male mice housed with other males. It also reduced stress, depression and blocked the negative effects of caffeine. This suggests that drinking green tea may not cause the usual nervousness associated with caffeine intake as this would be counteracted by the theanine found within green tea.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23395732 - multiple beneficial effects of theanine on mice that were trapped (causing restraint-induced stress), this shows theanine can reverse some cognitive impairment in mice that have undergone stress, and most likely in humans as well.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23107346 - multiple benefits to theanine administration in human participants with a tendency toward high-stress responses while performing a mental task.
I also looked over a few forums and saw mixed results, I'd say around half of the people using theanine experienced reductions in anxiety while the rest noticed no change. Also, most of the people that used it said that they quickly developed a tolerance to it (usually within a couple of weeks). However, a lot of people said that the only good quality form of theanine was something called suntheanine, and I'm sure that most of the people on these forums hadn't used this particular form. The people who did use this form usually said it was effective.
Vitamin A
Vitamin A doesn't seem to be overly important in that we, in the developed world, appear to be getting enough of it from our diets. However, its still interesting to read about. According to Wikipedia: the term vitamin A refers to a group of unsaturated nutritional hydrocarbons. This includes retinol, retinal and retinoic acid and several pro-vitamin A carotinoids of which beta-carotene is the most important. If you have ever heard the old saying "carrots let you see in the dark", then you're about to find out how this could be true. The beta-carotene mentioned above is present in carrots and when ingested by humans, is converted into vitamin A, an umbrella term specifically encompassing retinal in this respect. The significance of this conversion to retinal with relation to low light vision is that retinal is needed by the eye, specifically the retina, to produce rhodopsin, a light-absorbing molecule. Retinol is essentially the storage form of vitamin A that can be converted reversibly to retinal. The conversion to retinoic acid however, is irreversible and this compound is used for growth and cellular differentiation, it is not used in the retina.
The uses of vitamin A as a whole are the following:
- Growth and development
- Immune system maintenance
- Good vision
- Gene transcription
- Embryonic development and reproduction
- Bone metabolism
- Healthy skin
- Antioxidant properties
- Development of blood cells
- Tissue repair and replacing intestinal lining, this effect can allow vitamin A to prevent intestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome
Signs of a vitamin A deficiency are:
- Blindness
- Stunted growth
- Immune system disorders
- Respiratory infections
The best food sources of vitamin A: are liver, chillis, sweet potatoes, sweet carrots and green vegetables.
According to the World Health Organisation, around 250,000 to 500,000 children become blind due to vitamin A deficiency and around 50% of these children die within a year of this happening.
http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/vad/en/
The uses of vitamin A as a whole are the following:
- Growth and development
- Immune system maintenance
- Good vision
- Gene transcription
- Embryonic development and reproduction
- Bone metabolism
- Healthy skin
- Antioxidant properties
- Development of blood cells
- Tissue repair and replacing intestinal lining, this effect can allow vitamin A to prevent intestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome
Signs of a vitamin A deficiency are:
- Blindness
- Stunted growth
- Immune system disorders
- Respiratory infections
The best food sources of vitamin A: are liver, chillis, sweet potatoes, sweet carrots and green vegetables.
According to the World Health Organisation, around 250,000 to 500,000 children become blind due to vitamin A deficiency and around 50% of these children die within a year of this happening.
http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/vad/en/
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is a hormone; a chemical substance produced in the body which has a specific regulatory effect on the activity of certain cells or a certain organ or organs. It has various uses within the body:
- It is needed for the absorption and metabolism of calcium and phosphorus, among many other functions, these minerals are necessary for bone health (higher vitamin D levels are associated with greater bone density).
- It regulates the immune system and therefore is beneficial in treating viruses and infections etc.
- It may reduce the risk of multiple sclerosis (I don't know whether or not it treats it though): http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/8444739/Health-benefits-of-vitamin-D.html the figure of 80% seems very high but could be true.
- Reduces cognitive impairment and age-related decline, for example poorer memory or even dementia or Alzheimer's disease.
- Some people take it to reduce the severity of asthma attacks. So it seems to have efficacy in treating this disease.
- It reduces the risk of rheumatoid arthritis in women.
- Many studies have shown that it has a powerful role in reducing incidence of cancer, especially colon cancer: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/01/us-vitamind-idUSTRE78063U20110901 and
http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/98/7/428.full.pdf
- It also increases the recovery rate from tuberculosis.
- Finally, it may prevent heart attacks and increase longevity.
Various uses of vitamin D
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/161618.php
According to doctor Oz, dietary supplementation of 2,000 to 3,000 IU of vitamin D is completely safe and nowhere near the levels which could cause toxicity. This is supported by evidence suggesting that you can make around 10,000 IU of vitamin D by exposing yourself to direct sunlight for 10 to 15 minutes. Vitamin D is made when exposed to UVB rays from the sun, and consequently using a sun lotion which blocks these rays will compromise your natural ability to produce vitamin D. This reduces total body vitamin D. However, serum (this is essentially blood plasma) vitamin D levels can be reduced by being overweight. This is because vitamin D is fat soluble. In a study comparing individuals who were of normal weight and those who were obese it was found that when both groups were exposed to the same level of ultraviolet radiation, the obese participants had a 55% lower serum level of vitamin D.
Typically, a healthy level of vitamin D is shown by a serum level of more than 30ng/ml, but many experts say that this is still too low and a level of around 60 to 80ng/ml is more appropriate. Some doctors place the safe upper limit at 100 ng/ml but life guards who spend a lot of their time on sunny beaches tend to have serum levels at around 125ng/ml with no signs of toxicity. In fact, serum levels of 200ng/ml may even be safe, but not many people reach this level. For average individuals; every 100 IU of vitamin D that is ingested results in a rise of 1ng/ml of serum vitamin D (this is measured by checking the levels of 25(OH)D). Also, regardless of race, vitamin D serum levels predict bone density (remember its effects on calcium and phosphorus). This is important because people of darker skin are more resistant to UVB rays and hence create lower amounts of vitamin D per amount of ultraviolet radiation. This means that these same people, when living in countries which have fewer hours of sunlight, actually have a very high chance of being vitamin D deficient. In a Boston study it was found that those who tanned once per week in a tanning bed had much higher levels of serum vitamin D (an average of ~48ng/ml) than those who didn't tan (~17-18ng/ml). The people who tanned also had noticeably increased bone density compared to those who didn't.
I can't tell which is more important, D2 or D3, there are conflicting reports, most people tend to think that D3 is more beneficial but I am unsure why and tests on rats (they metabolise many substances in a similar way to humans) indicate that D2 is better for them.
- It is needed for the absorption and metabolism of calcium and phosphorus, among many other functions, these minerals are necessary for bone health (higher vitamin D levels are associated with greater bone density).
- It regulates the immune system and therefore is beneficial in treating viruses and infections etc.
- It may reduce the risk of multiple sclerosis (I don't know whether or not it treats it though): http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/8444739/Health-benefits-of-vitamin-D.html the figure of 80% seems very high but could be true.
- Reduces cognitive impairment and age-related decline, for example poorer memory or even dementia or Alzheimer's disease.
- Some people take it to reduce the severity of asthma attacks. So it seems to have efficacy in treating this disease.
- It reduces the risk of rheumatoid arthritis in women.
- Many studies have shown that it has a powerful role in reducing incidence of cancer, especially colon cancer: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/01/us-vitamind-idUSTRE78063U20110901 and
http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/98/7/428.full.pdf
- It also increases the recovery rate from tuberculosis.
- Finally, it may prevent heart attacks and increase longevity.
Various uses of vitamin D
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/161618.php
According to doctor Oz, dietary supplementation of 2,000 to 3,000 IU of vitamin D is completely safe and nowhere near the levels which could cause toxicity. This is supported by evidence suggesting that you can make around 10,000 IU of vitamin D by exposing yourself to direct sunlight for 10 to 15 minutes. Vitamin D is made when exposed to UVB rays from the sun, and consequently using a sun lotion which blocks these rays will compromise your natural ability to produce vitamin D. This reduces total body vitamin D. However, serum (this is essentially blood plasma) vitamin D levels can be reduced by being overweight. This is because vitamin D is fat soluble. In a study comparing individuals who were of normal weight and those who were obese it was found that when both groups were exposed to the same level of ultraviolet radiation, the obese participants had a 55% lower serum level of vitamin D.
Typically, a healthy level of vitamin D is shown by a serum level of more than 30ng/ml, but many experts say that this is still too low and a level of around 60 to 80ng/ml is more appropriate. Some doctors place the safe upper limit at 100 ng/ml but life guards who spend a lot of their time on sunny beaches tend to have serum levels at around 125ng/ml with no signs of toxicity. In fact, serum levels of 200ng/ml may even be safe, but not many people reach this level. For average individuals; every 100 IU of vitamin D that is ingested results in a rise of 1ng/ml of serum vitamin D (this is measured by checking the levels of 25(OH)D). Also, regardless of race, vitamin D serum levels predict bone density (remember its effects on calcium and phosphorus). This is important because people of darker skin are more resistant to UVB rays and hence create lower amounts of vitamin D per amount of ultraviolet radiation. This means that these same people, when living in countries which have fewer hours of sunlight, actually have a very high chance of being vitamin D deficient. In a Boston study it was found that those who tanned once per week in a tanning bed had much higher levels of serum vitamin D (an average of ~48ng/ml) than those who didn't tan (~17-18ng/ml). The people who tanned also had noticeably increased bone density compared to those who didn't.
I can't tell which is more important, D2 or D3, there are conflicting reports, most people tend to think that D3 is more beneficial but I am unsure why and tests on rats (they metabolise many substances in a similar way to humans) indicate that D2 is better for them.
Cell membrane
This is a thin semi-permeable covering that envelopes a cell. It allows certain atoms, ions and molecules into the cell but not others. The cell membrane (also known as a plasma membrane) is mostly comprised of a phospholipid bilayer, this is a double layer of lipid molecules combined with phosphorus. Within this membrane there are various proteins which act as channels or pumps. Particles may diffuse across channels or be pumped into the cell by the protein pumps via active transport. Membranes are very thin, usually around 7 millionths of a millimeter thick and require the use of an electron microscope in order to see, unlike many other components of cells which may be seen through a light microscope. The cell membrane is involved in other processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and signalling with other cells. It allows cells to attach to one another in order to form tissues.
There are 4 ways in which substances may move across the membrane of a cell:
1) Passive movement (diffusion or osmosis): this describes the movement of substances without the need for expending energy. The substances simply move into the cell due to differences in concentration of molecules inside and outside of the cell. If there is a high concentration of molecules in the extracellular fluid then these molecules will move into the cell and vice versa. Molecules that are capable of moving across the plasma membrane without cellular energy expenditure must be small enough to fit through it's gaps. Examples of such molecules are carbon dioxide, oxygen and water.
2) Transmembrane protein channels and transport proteins: substances which are necessary for the cell in order to survive, (e.g. molecules which are used for respiration such as glucose) are pumped into the cell by protein pumps. This requires energy as it can sometime involve movement of the substances against the concentration gradient (here meaning that substances may move from a region of relative low concentration to a region of relative high concentration). The proteins that carry out this process are quite specific but can be fooled.
3) Endocytosis: this describes the process by which cells take in molecules by engulfment. First the cell moves closer to the substance and then the plasma membrane pulls inward toward the centre of the cell to form a C-shape with the substance to be captured becoming trapped within the membrane. This is called invagination. This invagination is then removed from the membrane and forms a vesicle which is used to trap the molecule into a package. This is essentially the way in which cells 'eat'.
4) Exocytosis: pretty much the exact opposite of endocytosis. The molecules to be removed are first packaged into a vesicle which then attaches itself to the inner cell membrane causing their membranes to fuse together and opening the vesicle. This causes the molecules previously contained within the vesicle to be released into the extracellular medium. This is essentially cellular excretion.
Vacuoles, lysosomes, and autophagy
Vacuoles are used to contain harmful materials, waste products, and small molecules. They also maintain pressure and an acidic pH within the cell. While most, if not all of plant cells have at least one vacuole, not all animal cells have one. In animal cells which contain vacuoles, they aid the processes of exocytosis and endocytosis and play a critical role in a process known as autophagy.
Autophagy, ('self-eating) is a catabolic process in which cell parts that are no longer functioning correctly or are simply no longer necessary are broken down. This occurs by first isolating the targeted components / organelles and then fusing lysosomes to them. Lysosomes are organelles that contain acid hydrolase enzymes. This process is especially beneficial during periods of starvation in which the cell may digest its own components for survival.
There are 4 ways in which substances may move across the membrane of a cell:
1) Passive movement (diffusion or osmosis): this describes the movement of substances without the need for expending energy. The substances simply move into the cell due to differences in concentration of molecules inside and outside of the cell. If there is a high concentration of molecules in the extracellular fluid then these molecules will move into the cell and vice versa. Molecules that are capable of moving across the plasma membrane without cellular energy expenditure must be small enough to fit through it's gaps. Examples of such molecules are carbon dioxide, oxygen and water.
2) Transmembrane protein channels and transport proteins: substances which are necessary for the cell in order to survive, (e.g. molecules which are used for respiration such as glucose) are pumped into the cell by protein pumps. This requires energy as it can sometime involve movement of the substances against the concentration gradient (here meaning that substances may move from a region of relative low concentration to a region of relative high concentration). The proteins that carry out this process are quite specific but can be fooled.
3) Endocytosis: this describes the process by which cells take in molecules by engulfment. First the cell moves closer to the substance and then the plasma membrane pulls inward toward the centre of the cell to form a C-shape with the substance to be captured becoming trapped within the membrane. This is called invagination. This invagination is then removed from the membrane and forms a vesicle which is used to trap the molecule into a package. This is essentially the way in which cells 'eat'.
4) Exocytosis: pretty much the exact opposite of endocytosis. The molecules to be removed are first packaged into a vesicle which then attaches itself to the inner cell membrane causing their membranes to fuse together and opening the vesicle. This causes the molecules previously contained within the vesicle to be released into the extracellular medium. This is essentially cellular excretion.
Vacuoles, lysosomes, and autophagy
Vacuoles are used to contain harmful materials, waste products, and small molecules. They also maintain pressure and an acidic pH within the cell. While most, if not all of plant cells have at least one vacuole, not all animal cells have one. In animal cells which contain vacuoles, they aid the processes of exocytosis and endocytosis and play a critical role in a process known as autophagy.
Autophagy, ('self-eating) is a catabolic process in which cell parts that are no longer functioning correctly or are simply no longer necessary are broken down. This occurs by first isolating the targeted components / organelles and then fusing lysosomes to them. Lysosomes are organelles that contain acid hydrolase enzymes. This process is especially beneficial during periods of starvation in which the cell may digest its own components for survival.
Cells
The cell is commonly known as the basic building block of life and is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing. An organism is a cell or collection of cells that is capable of living processes, these are:
- Responding to stimuli
- Reproduction
- Growth and development
- Movement
- Respiration
- Excretion
- Taking in and gaining energy from food
Organisms can be unicellular (are made up of one cell only) or multicellular (made up of many cells). There are 2 types of cell which are called prokaryote and eukaryote. Prokaryotic cells are smaller and lack a cell nucleus whereas eukaryotic cells have one. I'll be focusing on eukaryotic cells from this point onwards because this is what human (animal) cells are called. Eukaryotic cells are typically between 1 and 100 micrometres in length.
The human body contains an estimated 10-100 trillion cells, the actual number is very hard to estimate. It is also thought that only around 10% of the cells found in and on the human body are human cells. The rest are non-human microbial cells.
Within cells there are sub-cellular components known as organelles. In the same way that the human body has specialised organs to carry out specific functions, the cell can be considered to be a miniature body with all of its personal organs. These are the most common organelles in eukaryotic cells:
- Cytoskeleton; this structure maintains the shape of the cell and also anchors the organelles in place. Much like the skeleton of our bodies.
- Cell nucleus; this is the cell's information centre and the most readily recognisable organelle in eukaryotic cells.
- Mitochondria; these organelles carry out respiration and are like power plants for the cell, they generate energy by a process called oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP.
- Endoplasmic reticulum; this is an organelle that serves to transport molecules which need to be modified for some specific purpose or sent to other parts of the cell.
- Golgi apparatus; this processes and packages macromolecules (macro meaning large) such as proteins which are produced within the cell.
- Ribosomes; these are structures composed of two subunits made from RNA and protein molecules which synthesise proteins using information from RNA molecules made in the nucleus.
- Centrosomes; these produce microtubules (which form the cytoskeleton) and also manipulate the cytoskeleton itself. This strucutre is necessary for cell division.
- Vacuoles; these are essentially enclosed solutions contained within a membrane. They serve to store food and waste.
Cells are also enveloped by a semi-permeable membrane. This acts as a kind of gate which allows some but not all particles into the cell.
- Responding to stimuli
- Reproduction
- Growth and development
- Movement
- Respiration
- Excretion
- Taking in and gaining energy from food
Organisms can be unicellular (are made up of one cell only) or multicellular (made up of many cells). There are 2 types of cell which are called prokaryote and eukaryote. Prokaryotic cells are smaller and lack a cell nucleus whereas eukaryotic cells have one. I'll be focusing on eukaryotic cells from this point onwards because this is what human (animal) cells are called. Eukaryotic cells are typically between 1 and 100 micrometres in length.
The human body contains an estimated 10-100 trillion cells, the actual number is very hard to estimate. It is also thought that only around 10% of the cells found in and on the human body are human cells. The rest are non-human microbial cells.
Within cells there are sub-cellular components known as organelles. In the same way that the human body has specialised organs to carry out specific functions, the cell can be considered to be a miniature body with all of its personal organs. These are the most common organelles in eukaryotic cells:
- Cytoskeleton; this structure maintains the shape of the cell and also anchors the organelles in place. Much like the skeleton of our bodies.
- Cell nucleus; this is the cell's information centre and the most readily recognisable organelle in eukaryotic cells.
- Mitochondria; these organelles carry out respiration and are like power plants for the cell, they generate energy by a process called oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP.
- Endoplasmic reticulum; this is an organelle that serves to transport molecules which need to be modified for some specific purpose or sent to other parts of the cell.
- Golgi apparatus; this processes and packages macromolecules (macro meaning large) such as proteins which are produced within the cell.
- Ribosomes; these are structures composed of two subunits made from RNA and protein molecules which synthesise proteins using information from RNA molecules made in the nucleus.
- Centrosomes; these produce microtubules (which form the cytoskeleton) and also manipulate the cytoskeleton itself. This strucutre is necessary for cell division.
- Vacuoles; these are essentially enclosed solutions contained within a membrane. They serve to store food and waste.
Cells are also enveloped by a semi-permeable membrane. This acts as a kind of gate which allows some but not all particles into the cell.
Optical Isomerism
Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but the bonds are arranged differently in space.
Optical isomerism refers to two isomers that are mirror images of each other and non-superimposable (they cannot be placed on top of each other to make a perfect fit, in the same way as placing one hand on the other does not produce tessellation). Molecules that fit this description are referred to as enantiomers. When enantiomers are placed in symmetrical environments, they have the same chemical properties and physical properties (such as melting and boiling points) but they rotate plane-polarised light in equal amounts though in opposite directions.
Enantiomers that rotate plane-polarised light in a clockwise direction are know as L-(+)-enantiomers or (S)-enantiomers while those which rotate plane-polarised light in an anti-clockwise direction are known as D-(-)-enantiomers or (R)-enantiomers.
The L in these terms means laevorotatory, and the D means dextrorotatory.
A sign of optical isomerism is a chiral centre. This refers to a carbon atom that is bonded to 4 different groups, this causes a lack of symmetry and consequently is known as an asymmetric carbon atom.
In the example above, notice the 4 different groups attached to the central carbon atom
Mixtures containing 50% of each enantiomer are called racemic mixtures and overall, have no effect on plane-polarised light as each enantiomer cancels the other out.
An example of enantiomers are the antidepressant drugs escitalopram and citalopram. Citalopram is a racemic mixture (or racemate) containing (S)-citalopram and (R)-citalopram, whereas escitalopram contains only (S)-citalopram. As the (S)-enantiomer produces the desired antidepressant effects, escitalopram is prescribed in 1/2 the dosage that citalopram was.
Optical isomerism refers to two isomers that are mirror images of each other and non-superimposable (they cannot be placed on top of each other to make a perfect fit, in the same way as placing one hand on the other does not produce tessellation). Molecules that fit this description are referred to as enantiomers. When enantiomers are placed in symmetrical environments, they have the same chemical properties and physical properties (such as melting and boiling points) but they rotate plane-polarised light in equal amounts though in opposite directions.
Enantiomers that rotate plane-polarised light in a clockwise direction are know as L-(+)-enantiomers or (S)-enantiomers while those which rotate plane-polarised light in an anti-clockwise direction are known as D-(-)-enantiomers or (R)-enantiomers.
The L in these terms means laevorotatory, and the D means dextrorotatory.
A sign of optical isomerism is a chiral centre. This refers to a carbon atom that is bonded to 4 different groups, this causes a lack of symmetry and consequently is known as an asymmetric carbon atom.
In the example above, notice the 4 different groups attached to the central carbon atom
Mixtures containing 50% of each enantiomer are called racemic mixtures and overall, have no effect on plane-polarised light as each enantiomer cancels the other out.
An example of enantiomers are the antidepressant drugs escitalopram and citalopram. Citalopram is a racemic mixture (or racemate) containing (S)-citalopram and (R)-citalopram, whereas escitalopram contains only (S)-citalopram. As the (S)-enantiomer produces the desired antidepressant effects, escitalopram is prescribed in 1/2 the dosage that citalopram was.
Nervous system - brief overview
The Nervous system
The nervous system is divided into 2 parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Beginning with the central nervous system, this system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
- The brain stem relays information to and from the spinal cord.
- The cerebellum helps control motor movements when learning new motor skills. The cerebellum corrects for mistakes when learning new skills, e.g. if you are playing basketball for the first time and are trying to shoot for the hoop but aim too far to the right, the cerebellum is involved in correcting for this and next time you shoot from the same position you will aim a little to the left to compensate.
- The frontal lobe plans actions and controls movement, it sends a lot of information through the spinal cord in order to bring about movement. Different parts of the frontal lobe control different parts of the body. Where these parts of the body are in relation to each other are reflected in the way the regions of the frontal lobe that control these components are located. If you consider that your feet are at the bottom of your body and knees / legs are above this and so on, there is the same structure to the frontal cortex in that the region controlling the feet is at the bottom of the frontal cortex etc.
- The parietal lobe is beside the frontal lobe. The part of the parietal lobe that retrieves sensory touch information from external stimuli is located right beside the region of the frontal lobe that is involved in motor control. More sensitive areas such as fingertips are represented by larger areas within the parietal lobe compared to less sensitive areas.
- The temporal lobe, which is located beside the temples, receives auditory input. Parts of the temporal lobe are also important for memory formation.
- Occipital lobe - this is responsible for processing visual information.
- The peripheral nervous system has all of the motor nerves and sensory nerves that are outside of the spinal cord e.g. nerves that sense touch or heat. The peripheral nervous system also controls some functions automatically such as heartbeat and breathing.
The nervous system is divided into 2 parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Beginning with the central nervous system, this system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
- The brain stem relays information to and from the spinal cord.
- The cerebellum helps control motor movements when learning new motor skills. The cerebellum corrects for mistakes when learning new skills, e.g. if you are playing basketball for the first time and are trying to shoot for the hoop but aim too far to the right, the cerebellum is involved in correcting for this and next time you shoot from the same position you will aim a little to the left to compensate.
- The frontal lobe plans actions and controls movement, it sends a lot of information through the spinal cord in order to bring about movement. Different parts of the frontal lobe control different parts of the body. Where these parts of the body are in relation to each other are reflected in the way the regions of the frontal lobe that control these components are located. If you consider that your feet are at the bottom of your body and knees / legs are above this and so on, there is the same structure to the frontal cortex in that the region controlling the feet is at the bottom of the frontal cortex etc.
- The parietal lobe is beside the frontal lobe. The part of the parietal lobe that retrieves sensory touch information from external stimuli is located right beside the region of the frontal lobe that is involved in motor control. More sensitive areas such as fingertips are represented by larger areas within the parietal lobe compared to less sensitive areas.
- The temporal lobe, which is located beside the temples, receives auditory input. Parts of the temporal lobe are also important for memory formation.
- Occipital lobe - this is responsible for processing visual information.
- The peripheral nervous system has all of the motor nerves and sensory nerves that are outside of the spinal cord e.g. nerves that sense touch or heat. The peripheral nervous system also controls some functions automatically such as heartbeat and breathing.
Oxidative Stress - brief overview
Oxidative stress refers to the unwanted reactions between reactive oxygen species and components of cells. These can damage proteins, lipids, and DNA. However, this also makes them beneficial in the defence against pathogens and consequently they are used by the immune system to combat infections.
Oxidative stress occurs when the production of oxidising species overpowers the ability of antioxidant defences within the body. Reactive oxygen species are important for cell signalling and thus it would be premature to label them as 'bad'. The key is to strike a balance between oxidising species and their respective antioxidants.
Antioxidants are molecules that prevent the oxidation of other molecules. Antioxidant defences maintain oxidant concentrations within an optimum range as opposed to removing them entirely.The jury is still out on antioxidant supplementation however, as studies have so far presented positive findings, negative findings, and no change with regards to the illnesses that are attempted to be treated or prevented.
Oxidation occurs occurs when a substance loses an electron or hydrogen to an oxidising agent. Reactive oxygen species are produced by oxygen, which is a highly reactive molecule.
Oxidative stress occurs when the production of oxidising species overpowers the ability of antioxidant defences within the body. Reactive oxygen species are important for cell signalling and thus it would be premature to label them as 'bad'. The key is to strike a balance between oxidising species and their respective antioxidants.
Antioxidants are molecules that prevent the oxidation of other molecules. Antioxidant defences maintain oxidant concentrations within an optimum range as opposed to removing them entirely.The jury is still out on antioxidant supplementation however, as studies have so far presented positive findings, negative findings, and no change with regards to the illnesses that are attempted to be treated or prevented.
Oxidation occurs occurs when a substance loses an electron or hydrogen to an oxidising agent. Reactive oxygen species are produced by oxygen, which is a highly reactive molecule.
Myelin
Myelin is an electrically insulating material that forms a layer, called a myelin sheath, around certain cells (typically around the axon of neurons). It is made by myelinating Schwann cells wrapping themselves around the axons of these neurons.
Myelin production usually starts around the 14th week of fetal development and after this is a long, grow increase that can last into our thirties i.e. myelination occurs well into adulthood.
Axons which lack myelin tend to conduct action potentials at a velocity of 0.5-10 metres per second. When myelinated, however, axons can conduct the same signals at a rate of up to 150 metres per second, between 15-300 times the previous speed of transmission. This speed increase is brought about by a reduction in the distance that conduction occurs in.
When myelination occurs there are gaps where conduction takes place (called nodes of Ranvier) as opposed to conductions taking place along the entire length of the axon. If all of the axon was insulated, current wouldn't be able to flow out of the axon and an action potential couldn't be generated.
Having nodes of Ranvier allows the current to flow passively along the short distance insulated by the myelin sheath to the next node. This form of current propagation is known as saltatory conduction.
Myelin production usually starts around the 14th week of fetal development and after this is a long, grow increase that can last into our thirties i.e. myelination occurs well into adulthood.
Axons which lack myelin tend to conduct action potentials at a velocity of 0.5-10 metres per second. When myelinated, however, axons can conduct the same signals at a rate of up to 150 metres per second, between 15-300 times the previous speed of transmission. This speed increase is brought about by a reduction in the distance that conduction occurs in.
When myelination occurs there are gaps where conduction takes place (called nodes of Ranvier) as opposed to conductions taking place along the entire length of the axon. If all of the axon was insulated, current wouldn't be able to flow out of the axon and an action potential couldn't be generated.
Having nodes of Ranvier allows the current to flow passively along the short distance insulated by the myelin sheath to the next node. This form of current propagation is known as saltatory conduction.
Why Mice?
Roughly 95% of all lab animals are mice and rats. I have long wondered why mice and rats were used in such high numbers in animal testing considering how seemingly different they are to humans. These rodents look nothing like us for a start, so why use them as a frame for determining how humans will react to drugs, social interaction, environmental changes and food additives, among many other things? There are many reasons for this, because the rodents are small and easily housed, fast breeding, have a short lift expectancy (2-3 years) and are inexpensive compared to other animals. However, there are still further reasons other than convenience. We actually share many genetic similarities. Estimates of the number of genes in the human genome have varied wildly in recents times, from around 2,000,000 in the 1960s to the more modest figure of between 20,000 and 25,000 at the time of this article. This figure is significant because mice have approximately the same number of genes in their genome also. From this point onwards I will be focusing on mice as there is more information available about them. On average, the genes within both the mice and human genomes are 75-85% identical, with some genes being 99% identical and others around 60-70% identical.
The mouse was the second mammal (after the human) to have its genome sequenced. At the present day over 20 mammals have had their genome sequenced as well. This collection of genome sequences allows for comparisons of genes between species and provides clues for evolutionary pathways (something I desperately need to learn more about).
Anyway, back to medical research, apparently 90% of genes associated with disease are identical in humans and mice. This means that mice which have a particular susceptibility to certain diseases can be observed and tested in order to provide quite accurate prediction of how a human body or brain would react to the same disease.
The mouse was the second mammal (after the human) to have its genome sequenced. At the present day over 20 mammals have had their genome sequenced as well. This collection of genome sequences allows for comparisons of genes between species and provides clues for evolutionary pathways (something I desperately need to learn more about).
Anyway, back to medical research, apparently 90% of genes associated with disease are identical in humans and mice. This means that mice which have a particular susceptibility to certain diseases can be observed and tested in order to provide quite accurate prediction of how a human body or brain would react to the same disease.
Creatine and ATP
Before reading about creatine it is important to know a little about ATP:
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) acts as an energy source for the majority of cellular functions within the human body.
ATP is a highly unstable molecule which is readily hydrolysed to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) by the enzyme ATPase. This hydrolysis releases vast quantities of energy which can be utilised by cells to perform work e.g. muscle contraction when weightlifting. ADP is then converted back to ATP using energy that is released by consumption of food. We perform this conversion of ATP to ADP and back again constantly.
The average human has about 0.2 moles (101 grams) of ATP present in their body at any given moment yet uses up approximately the same weight of ATP as their body weight during the course of a day. How this occurs is discussed in more detail in the post about creatine.
I'm sure most of you have already heard of this popular exercise supplement but just in case you haven't:
Creatine is a naturally produced amino acid that is formed in the liver, kidneys and pancreas.
Most people produce around 1-2g of creatine per day.
It is involved in the production of ATP, a molecule which is of vital importance for energy production within cells.
Creatine can be obtained through diet, for example eating red meat.
95% of creatine in stored in skeletal muscle, with the remaining 5% scattered around the body but primarily found within the brain, heart and testes.
While there are some concerns as to the safety of creatine supplementation, these appear to be in the minority. In fact, the European Food Safety Authority has stated that oral consumption of creatine at a rate of 3g per day is considered "unlikely to pose any risk". However, they advise against a high 'loading phase' which is sometimes suggested by those using the supplement. The purpose of a loading phase is to take in as much creatine as your body can hold (each person has a genetic preset amount of creatine which can be retained) and then the maintenance phase begins after this. This is because the body will naturally tend to return to a more normal concentration of creatine but will do so at quite a slow rate, the maintenance phase requires much less creatine per day (usually 2-5g per day) compared to the loading phase (up to 24g per day), though these figures depend on which supplements you are taking.
How creatine works:
Muscle fibres store ATP but in small amounts. We typically have enough ATP in our muscle fibres at any given time to contract at maximal effort for 3 seconds. If you are a seasoned bodybuilder then you may have enough to contract for 6 seconds. However, if we couldn't make more ATP rapidly then we wouldn't be able to move very fast or for long periods of time. That's were ATP synthesis and creatine come together. In order to replenish the ATP molecules as quickly as possible, muscle cells contain creatine phosphate which is a high energy compound. This molecule donates a phosphate group to ADP (when ATP breaks down to release energy for the cell to work, ADP + inorganic phosphate group is formed) in order to reform ATP. Creatine supplementation is useful in that it creates the maximum level of creatine phosphate that a muscle can hold. This maximises its ability to reproduce ATP from ADP and creatine phosphate. The benefit of this is that the increased ability to produce energy allows us humans to sprint faster and longer, or lift heavier weights for more repetitions. By working at a higher level of exertion we cause more minor damage to our muscles which is then repaired, causing greater gains in strength and size.
Creatine itself also increases muscle cell mass. This is thought to occur by firstly attracting water molecules into the cell and by causing an anabolic reaction to form more proteins. Elevated levels of creatine has also been shown to correlate with more satellite cells which repair muscle fibres, meaning that creatine also speeds up the recovery process of cells.
So far I have only covered the physical benefits of creatine supplementation, but there are also mental gains as well. As mentioned before, some creatine is also stored in the brain and it has been shown that creatine supplementation can improve cognitive performance and also reduce the effects of sleep deprivation. In the case of sleep deprivation, the brain loses creatine levels and when these are increased by supplementation levels of mental performance are maintained for longer.
When taking creatine:
Creatine in powder form is stable but once dissolved in water will begin to degrade and form creatinine. Creatinine is a waste product and if ingested will be removed from the blood stream by the kidneys and so has no productive use. This is quite a slow process, but all the same if you are adding water to creatine then it is recommended that you drink the resulting solution within 48 hours of it being made. This prevents significant accumulation of creatinine.
Creatine also degrades at a temperature of 303 degrees celsius which means that boiling water can be added to creatine powder in order to dissolve more of it.
Many people gain 6 to 10lbs during the first 2 weeks of starting creatine supplementation and strength gains usually start to occur after the first week. If you don't work out however, you will experience little to no strength gains, but you will still gain weight from the water retention, as water is drawn into the cells by the creatine.
It is generally recommended that you consume at least 4 litres of water per day when using creatine. Also, creatine can be more effectively absorbed in the presence of simple sugars and a very effective and popular juice which can increase absorption is grape juice. This can increase absorption by around 60%!
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) acts as an energy source for the majority of cellular functions within the human body.
ATP is a highly unstable molecule which is readily hydrolysed to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) by the enzyme ATPase. This hydrolysis releases vast quantities of energy which can be utilised by cells to perform work e.g. muscle contraction when weightlifting. ADP is then converted back to ATP using energy that is released by consumption of food. We perform this conversion of ATP to ADP and back again constantly.
The average human has about 0.2 moles (101 grams) of ATP present in their body at any given moment yet uses up approximately the same weight of ATP as their body weight during the course of a day. How this occurs is discussed in more detail in the post about creatine.
I'm sure most of you have already heard of this popular exercise supplement but just in case you haven't:
Creatine is a naturally produced amino acid that is formed in the liver, kidneys and pancreas.
Most people produce around 1-2g of creatine per day.
It is involved in the production of ATP, a molecule which is of vital importance for energy production within cells.
Creatine can be obtained through diet, for example eating red meat.
95% of creatine in stored in skeletal muscle, with the remaining 5% scattered around the body but primarily found within the brain, heart and testes.
While there are some concerns as to the safety of creatine supplementation, these appear to be in the minority. In fact, the European Food Safety Authority has stated that oral consumption of creatine at a rate of 3g per day is considered "unlikely to pose any risk". However, they advise against a high 'loading phase' which is sometimes suggested by those using the supplement. The purpose of a loading phase is to take in as much creatine as your body can hold (each person has a genetic preset amount of creatine which can be retained) and then the maintenance phase begins after this. This is because the body will naturally tend to return to a more normal concentration of creatine but will do so at quite a slow rate, the maintenance phase requires much less creatine per day (usually 2-5g per day) compared to the loading phase (up to 24g per day), though these figures depend on which supplements you are taking.
How creatine works:
Muscle fibres store ATP but in small amounts. We typically have enough ATP in our muscle fibres at any given time to contract at maximal effort for 3 seconds. If you are a seasoned bodybuilder then you may have enough to contract for 6 seconds. However, if we couldn't make more ATP rapidly then we wouldn't be able to move very fast or for long periods of time. That's were ATP synthesis and creatine come together. In order to replenish the ATP molecules as quickly as possible, muscle cells contain creatine phosphate which is a high energy compound. This molecule donates a phosphate group to ADP (when ATP breaks down to release energy for the cell to work, ADP + inorganic phosphate group is formed) in order to reform ATP. Creatine supplementation is useful in that it creates the maximum level of creatine phosphate that a muscle can hold. This maximises its ability to reproduce ATP from ADP and creatine phosphate. The benefit of this is that the increased ability to produce energy allows us humans to sprint faster and longer, or lift heavier weights for more repetitions. By working at a higher level of exertion we cause more minor damage to our muscles which is then repaired, causing greater gains in strength and size.
Creatine itself also increases muscle cell mass. This is thought to occur by firstly attracting water molecules into the cell and by causing an anabolic reaction to form more proteins. Elevated levels of creatine has also been shown to correlate with more satellite cells which repair muscle fibres, meaning that creatine also speeds up the recovery process of cells.
So far I have only covered the physical benefits of creatine supplementation, but there are also mental gains as well. As mentioned before, some creatine is also stored in the brain and it has been shown that creatine supplementation can improve cognitive performance and also reduce the effects of sleep deprivation. In the case of sleep deprivation, the brain loses creatine levels and when these are increased by supplementation levels of mental performance are maintained for longer.
When taking creatine:
Creatine in powder form is stable but once dissolved in water will begin to degrade and form creatinine. Creatinine is a waste product and if ingested will be removed from the blood stream by the kidneys and so has no productive use. This is quite a slow process, but all the same if you are adding water to creatine then it is recommended that you drink the resulting solution within 48 hours of it being made. This prevents significant accumulation of creatinine.
Creatine also degrades at a temperature of 303 degrees celsius which means that boiling water can be added to creatine powder in order to dissolve more of it.
Many people gain 6 to 10lbs during the first 2 weeks of starting creatine supplementation and strength gains usually start to occur after the first week. If you don't work out however, you will experience little to no strength gains, but you will still gain weight from the water retention, as water is drawn into the cells by the creatine.
It is generally recommended that you consume at least 4 litres of water per day when using creatine. Also, creatine can be more effectively absorbed in the presence of simple sugars and a very effective and popular juice which can increase absorption is grape juice. This can increase absorption by around 60%!
Neurons and related
Glia
90% of the cells in the brain and spinal cord are not neurons but are referred to as glia (glue). Glia are defined simply as not being neurons. They include astrocytes (star shaped cells) which supply nutrients to the neurons and help regulate their function. Other non-nerve cells are Schwann cells which wrap around the axons of neurons (a process called myelination) and increase the conduction speed of their impulses. This allows the neurons to communicate with each other in a smaller time-frame. There are also micro-glia which function as a kind of brain immune system. They fight off bacteria and viruses within the brain and also remove dead cells.
Neurons - neurons can be as wide as 1 inch, or thinner than a human hair.
The dendrites of neurons receive information from neighbouring nerve cells and pass it along to the cell body (soma).
At the axon hillock it is decided whether or not the information is passed along the axon to the axon terminal.
Neurons can be considered to either be switched 'on' or 'off'. When the neuron is off it is maintaining a resting potential. Neurons communicate through electrical signals brought about by the movement of chemicals called ions. Ions are charged atoms and can be either positively or negatively charged. Positive ions outside of the neuron keep it off or 'quiet'. Ions are kept out of the cells by pumps which pump the positive ions out of the cell. This causes the net charge within the cell to be negative.
Whenever a neighbouring neuron sends chemical messengers across the synapse and onto the dendritic receptors of the cell we are considering, a channel opens up. This channel allows the positive ions to move into the cell which causes a change in charge. This change in charge determines whether or not the nerve cell will fire. The nerve cell must receive enough neurotransmitters at its dendritic receptors in order to create an adequate amount of positive ions to accumulate at the axon hillock. The axon hillock also contains channels and when enough positive ions build up at his area these channels will open up and allow even more positive ions to enter the nerve cell. This influx of more positive ions causes even more channels at the axon hillock to open up and therefore results in more positive ions entering. This causes an influx of positive ions into the rest of the axon including the axon terminal. Once this happens, the terminal releases chemical messengers / neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft and these are received by the next cell, restarting this whole process within the new cell. There is a threshold value of positive ions that are necessary in order for the axon hillock to propagate the impulse along the axon and into the terminal. If this threshold is not reached, the nerve cell remains off and does not fire. This is known as the action potential of the cell.
-The neuron that transmits a signal is referred to as the pre-synaptic neuron
-The neuron that receives a signal is referred to as the pre-synaptic neuron
-The gap between both neurons is called the synapse
When a neuron receives a signal there are 2 main types of effect that can be produced.
1) Temporal Effect:
b) The signal causes an influx of negative ions which discourage the post-synaptic neuron to transmit information (inhibitory response)
2) Genomic effect: when a neurotransmitter attaches to a receptor on the post-synaptic neuron, it may influence the activation of a transcription factor. This may bring up cellular changes, e.g. causing the cell to produce more receptor channels upon it's dentrites. Neurons which have more receptors are more responsive to equal amounts of neurotransmitters compared to those with fewer receptors. This results in strengthening of the synaptic connections between this post-synaptic neuron and any neurons which release a neurotransmitter that binds to the receptor channels that have increased production. Conversely, if a genomic effect brings about a reduction of receptor channels for a specific neurotransmitter then the post-synaptic and pre-synaptic cell connection will decrease in strength.
It is possible for neurons to respond to many different neurotransmitters whether inhibitory or excitatory. A single neurotransmitter is also able to affect multiple neuron types which may be located in different areas of the brain and have different functions.
Examples of neurotransmitters:
-Epinephrine (adrenaline) - does not create any emotions, it amplifies the intensity of any emotion which is subsequently generated, based on an experiment where people were injected with adrenaline without realising. When they were exposed either to a person showing frustration or joy they experienced the emotion they were exposed to with a high intensity.
-Dopamine
-Serotonin
-GABA
-Glutamate
While neurons in the brain respond to many different neurotransmitters, those associated with neuromuscular junctions typically use only one type.
Neuropharmacology - this can be regarded as the external manipulation of synaptic events. When treating psychological ailments the general idea is to either increase or decrease the strength of synaptic connections within the brain. Ways of increasing synaptic connectivity includes increasing the amount of neurotransmitter substances which are released by the pre-synaptic neuron and also causing these chemical messengers to linger in the synapse. These can be accomplished by reuptake and degradation prevention.
Reuptake - when a neurotransmitter has already bonded with the receptor site of the dendrite on the post-synaptic neuron, it is usually taken back into the pre-synaptic neuron. If this did not occur then the neurotransmitter would continuously signal to the post-synaptic neuron to keep opening its ion channels and hence repeatedly excite it. Protein pumps on the nerve cells will pump the used up neurotransmitters back into the pre-synaptic neuron.
Degradation - enzymes present within the synaptic cleft will catabolise the neurotransmitters to form breakdown products, these breakdown products are then either taken back into the nerve cell or else removed by various fluids. Breakdown products can be detected in the cerebrospinal fluid, blood and also in urine. This has some use in the diagnosis of diseases but is typically inconclusive.
Neurotransmitters can be forced to remain in the synapse if reuptake and degradation are inhibited.
Neurotransmitter-receptor activity can be increased by improving the efficiency with which the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor sites of the post-synaptic neuron. This amplifies the neurotransmitter signal and strengthens the synaptic response. In order to weaken the synaptic response all that is needed is to block any of the processes required for the transmission of chemical messengers e.g. blocking neurotransmitter receptors, neurotransmitter release and decreasing receptor activity.
Neuropathology - It is difficult to measure amounts of neurotransmitter substances within the brain, especially in a living patient. Such measurements are usually made through break-down products as mentioned earlier. In Parkinson's disease there is a decrease in dopamine in areas of the brain related to motor movements. If, however, you were to attempt to treat this localised dopamine shortage by giving the patient more dopamine which travelled to the whole brain, then other problems would arise. Some patients have developed psychotic symptoms as a result of this treatment.
90% of the cells in the brain and spinal cord are not neurons but are referred to as glia (glue). Glia are defined simply as not being neurons. They include astrocytes (star shaped cells) which supply nutrients to the neurons and help regulate their function. Other non-nerve cells are Schwann cells which wrap around the axons of neurons (a process called myelination) and increase the conduction speed of their impulses. This allows the neurons to communicate with each other in a smaller time-frame. There are also micro-glia which function as a kind of brain immune system. They fight off bacteria and viruses within the brain and also remove dead cells.
Neurons - neurons can be as wide as 1 inch, or thinner than a human hair.
The dendrites of neurons receive information from neighbouring nerve cells and pass it along to the cell body (soma).
At the axon hillock it is decided whether or not the information is passed along the axon to the axon terminal.
Neurons can be considered to either be switched 'on' or 'off'. When the neuron is off it is maintaining a resting potential. Neurons communicate through electrical signals brought about by the movement of chemicals called ions. Ions are charged atoms and can be either positively or negatively charged. Positive ions outside of the neuron keep it off or 'quiet'. Ions are kept out of the cells by pumps which pump the positive ions out of the cell. This causes the net charge within the cell to be negative.
Whenever a neighbouring neuron sends chemical messengers across the synapse and onto the dendritic receptors of the cell we are considering, a channel opens up. This channel allows the positive ions to move into the cell which causes a change in charge. This change in charge determines whether or not the nerve cell will fire. The nerve cell must receive enough neurotransmitters at its dendritic receptors in order to create an adequate amount of positive ions to accumulate at the axon hillock. The axon hillock also contains channels and when enough positive ions build up at his area these channels will open up and allow even more positive ions to enter the nerve cell. This influx of more positive ions causes even more channels at the axon hillock to open up and therefore results in more positive ions entering. This causes an influx of positive ions into the rest of the axon including the axon terminal. Once this happens, the terminal releases chemical messengers / neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft and these are received by the next cell, restarting this whole process within the new cell. There is a threshold value of positive ions that are necessary in order for the axon hillock to propagate the impulse along the axon and into the terminal. If this threshold is not reached, the nerve cell remains off and does not fire. This is known as the action potential of the cell.
-The neuron that transmits a signal is referred to as the pre-synaptic neuron
-The neuron that receives a signal is referred to as the pre-synaptic neuron
-The gap between both neurons is called the synapse
When a neuron receives a signal there are 2 main types of effect that can be produced.
1) Temporal Effect:
b) The signal causes an influx of negative ions which discourage the post-synaptic neuron to transmit information (inhibitory response)
2) Genomic effect: when a neurotransmitter attaches to a receptor on the post-synaptic neuron, it may influence the activation of a transcription factor. This may bring up cellular changes, e.g. causing the cell to produce more receptor channels upon it's dentrites. Neurons which have more receptors are more responsive to equal amounts of neurotransmitters compared to those with fewer receptors. This results in strengthening of the synaptic connections between this post-synaptic neuron and any neurons which release a neurotransmitter that binds to the receptor channels that have increased production. Conversely, if a genomic effect brings about a reduction of receptor channels for a specific neurotransmitter then the post-synaptic and pre-synaptic cell connection will decrease in strength.
It is possible for neurons to respond to many different neurotransmitters whether inhibitory or excitatory. A single neurotransmitter is also able to affect multiple neuron types which may be located in different areas of the brain and have different functions.
Examples of neurotransmitters:
-Epinephrine (adrenaline) - does not create any emotions, it amplifies the intensity of any emotion which is subsequently generated, based on an experiment where people were injected with adrenaline without realising. When they were exposed either to a person showing frustration or joy they experienced the emotion they were exposed to with a high intensity.
-Dopamine
-Serotonin
-GABA
-Glutamate
While neurons in the brain respond to many different neurotransmitters, those associated with neuromuscular junctions typically use only one type.
Neuropharmacology - this can be regarded as the external manipulation of synaptic events. When treating psychological ailments the general idea is to either increase or decrease the strength of synaptic connections within the brain. Ways of increasing synaptic connectivity includes increasing the amount of neurotransmitter substances which are released by the pre-synaptic neuron and also causing these chemical messengers to linger in the synapse. These can be accomplished by reuptake and degradation prevention.
Reuptake - when a neurotransmitter has already bonded with the receptor site of the dendrite on the post-synaptic neuron, it is usually taken back into the pre-synaptic neuron. If this did not occur then the neurotransmitter would continuously signal to the post-synaptic neuron to keep opening its ion channels and hence repeatedly excite it. Protein pumps on the nerve cells will pump the used up neurotransmitters back into the pre-synaptic neuron.
Degradation - enzymes present within the synaptic cleft will catabolise the neurotransmitters to form breakdown products, these breakdown products are then either taken back into the nerve cell or else removed by various fluids. Breakdown products can be detected in the cerebrospinal fluid, blood and also in urine. This has some use in the diagnosis of diseases but is typically inconclusive.
Neurotransmitters can be forced to remain in the synapse if reuptake and degradation are inhibited.
Neurotransmitter-receptor activity can be increased by improving the efficiency with which the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor sites of the post-synaptic neuron. This amplifies the neurotransmitter signal and strengthens the synaptic response. In order to weaken the synaptic response all that is needed is to block any of the processes required for the transmission of chemical messengers e.g. blocking neurotransmitter receptors, neurotransmitter release and decreasing receptor activity.
Neuropathology - It is difficult to measure amounts of neurotransmitter substances within the brain, especially in a living patient. Such measurements are usually made through break-down products as mentioned earlier. In Parkinson's disease there is a decrease in dopamine in areas of the brain related to motor movements. If, however, you were to attempt to treat this localised dopamine shortage by giving the patient more dopamine which travelled to the whole brain, then other problems would arise. Some patients have developed psychotic symptoms as a result of this treatment.
Epigenetics
Epigenetics refers to the process by which the expression of genes are affected by our internal and external environments, this means that the thoughts and feelings which we experience and also factors such as diet, exercise and social setting will change how our genes express themselves. Genes can either be fully on, fully off, or somewhere in-between (referred to as "dimming"). The consequence of this phenomenon is that it can be manipulated to increase or decrease the phenotype of our genes (how the genes are expressed biologically and physiologically). This means that physical and mental diseases can be changed (treated, prevented or even cured) through our behaviour and environments. While this is quite a new discovery, there are certain drugs which are already being used with epigenetics in mind. Examples of this are seen in drugs improving cholesterol levels and also treating cancer and there plans to treat psycho-pathologies (mental afflictions such as depression / anxiety / schizophrenia) with the same idea in mind.
The idea that I would like to focus on with this post is the behavioural distinction between rats of high nurturing mothers and the rats of low nurturing mothers, as this is how I came across this term.
Within the first week of their life, rats are greatly affected by the nurturing habits of their mothers. This is because immediately after birth, this gene is silenced by methyl molecules. The expression of this gene is determined by the amount of affection the rat receives within its first 7 days of life. High nurturing mothers cause chemical reactions within their rat pups which remove the methyl groups and determine how strongly the glucocorticoid receptor gene is expressed. If this gene remains silenced (as in the case of low-nurturing mothers) then the rat will have a harder time coping with stress. This is because these specific receptor sites are highly involved with the stress response.
When rats (or humans) are stressed, the body releases many chemicals but I'll be focusing on cortisol, because I honestly don't know anything about the others. First of all, the hypothalamus is stimulated by the perceived threat and sends two simultaneous signals, one to the pituitary gland and another along the spinal cord. These two signals are travelling to the same destination however, and this is the adrenal gland. The adrenal gland is where cortisol comes into play. Cortisol gets released into the blood and causes increases in blood pressure, blood sugar and reduces the effectiveness of the immune system (why we tend to get sick more often when stressed out).
There are many effects of the stress response which we all experience such as nervousness, increased energy and increased perspiration. Glucocorticoid receptors in cells will bind with the cortisol and send out calming signals to prevent the stress response from continuing. Rats / humans with lower levels of glucocorticoid receptors will have longer stress responses and can be much more prone to chronic stress than those with higher levels of this receptor.
The effects of this phenomenon can be seen in children and adults who have experienced prolonged emotional distress while young, such as anxiety and depression. Methods of reversing these epigenetic changes are being worked on presently. Drugs which remove the methyl molecules from the GR gene within rats have been shown to cause personality trait changes - this makes highly anxious rats become much more calm. This method has yet to be tried out on humans though as it is still being researched but it does look promising. Pretty awesome huh?
The idea that I would like to focus on with this post is the behavioural distinction between rats of high nurturing mothers and the rats of low nurturing mothers, as this is how I came across this term.
Within the first week of their life, rats are greatly affected by the nurturing habits of their mothers. This is because immediately after birth, this gene is silenced by methyl molecules. The expression of this gene is determined by the amount of affection the rat receives within its first 7 days of life. High nurturing mothers cause chemical reactions within their rat pups which remove the methyl groups and determine how strongly the glucocorticoid receptor gene is expressed. If this gene remains silenced (as in the case of low-nurturing mothers) then the rat will have a harder time coping with stress. This is because these specific receptor sites are highly involved with the stress response.
When rats (or humans) are stressed, the body releases many chemicals but I'll be focusing on cortisol, because I honestly don't know anything about the others. First of all, the hypothalamus is stimulated by the perceived threat and sends two simultaneous signals, one to the pituitary gland and another along the spinal cord. These two signals are travelling to the same destination however, and this is the adrenal gland. The adrenal gland is where cortisol comes into play. Cortisol gets released into the blood and causes increases in blood pressure, blood sugar and reduces the effectiveness of the immune system (why we tend to get sick more often when stressed out).
There are many effects of the stress response which we all experience such as nervousness, increased energy and increased perspiration. Glucocorticoid receptors in cells will bind with the cortisol and send out calming signals to prevent the stress response from continuing. Rats / humans with lower levels of glucocorticoid receptors will have longer stress responses and can be much more prone to chronic stress than those with higher levels of this receptor.
The effects of this phenomenon can be seen in children and adults who have experienced prolonged emotional distress while young, such as anxiety and depression. Methods of reversing these epigenetic changes are being worked on presently. Drugs which remove the methyl molecules from the GR gene within rats have been shown to cause personality trait changes - this makes highly anxious rats become much more calm. This method has yet to be tried out on humans though as it is still being researched but it does look promising. Pretty awesome huh?
Schizophrenia and EPA
Treatment with omega-3
Due to the many of adverse side effects of antipsychotic drugs there is increasing interest in alternative treatments for schizophrenia. I will be addressing one of these treatments; ethyl-eicosaptaenoic acid (E-EPA) which is a fatty acid found in omega-3. Below are some of the studies that I have looked at involving E-EPA, also referred to as just EPA.
1) In a study testing the effects of placebo vs omega-3 supplements it was found that 27.5% experienced further development of psychosis after treatment with placebo and only 4.9% experienced this when treated with omega-3 supplements. I wasn't able to find the numbers of people involved or length of test, length until psychosis developed or amount of EPA dosage, but there are more studies.
2) In this second test, 81 high risk youths (young people who had a family history of schizophrenia), all previously showed early symptoms of schizophrenia - short hallucinations and delusions. Based on research, if not treated roughly half would develop schizophrenia. Half of these youths took 1,500mg (1.5 grams) of fish oil for 3 months, and the other half took a placebo. A year after the study started, 3% that took fish oil developed schizophrenia compared with 28% who took the placebo. Previous studies suggest that antipsychotic drugs would have reduced the rate to 12% though they have severe side-effects.
3) In 8 studies ranging from 6 to 16 weeks in duration and involving 517 people diagnosed with schizophrenia there were minimal improvements when subjects were supplemented with EPA and DHA compared to placebo. These tests overall found that the omega-3 oils gave a small increase in general functioning and mental state but not to a statistically significant degree. This could show that omega-3 fatty acids are not effective or that the trials were too small and short in duration, however, it is difficult to tell as this treatment is in its early stage.
4) 87 patients whose average age was 40, took 3,000 mg of EPA per day. This test showed no improvement in schizophrenic symptoms. However, most of these patients had been ill for 2 decades and the study says that "the patients described as benefiting from EPA in prior studies were younger and had a shorter duration of illness." And that; "[Prior] reports have indicated symptom improvement ranging from 17% to 85% when omega-3 fatty acids were added to patients usual medication."
5) 76 patients in a trial of fish oil tablets vs placebo; 41 patients took fish oil tablets 4 times per day and 25 took placebo over a 3 month period. Of the 41 patients that took the fish oil, 2 developed a psychotic disorder after 1 year while 11 of the placebo group developed a psychotic disorder within the one year period.
6) In a study involving an unknown number of patients taking different dosages of EPA; 1g, 2g, and 4g per day it was found that 2,000mg was most effective in reducing psychotic symptoms. This dosage was found to have increased the amount of red cell EPA without decreasing red cell arachidonic acid. This study showed an inverted U relationship between improvement of symptoms and dosage of EPA. Similar effects were shown in a depression study in which 1,000mg per day was most effective.
7) "Administration of omega-3 in adolescent rats prevents positive, negative and cognitive symptoms in a ketamine animal model of schizophrenia. Whether these findings are a consequence of BDNF increase is unclear. However, this study gives compelling evidence for larger clinical trials to confirm the use of omega-3 to prevent schizophrenia and for studies to reinforce the beneficial role of omega-3 in brain protection." - BDNF (brain derived neurotrophic factor) is involved in the growth of new neurons.
It is possible that EPA is able to treat or prevent the onset of full blown schizophrenia if caught early enough and that the studies which didn't work involved patients who had had schizophrenia for a longer duration. One thing is for sure, though, and this is that EPA has very few side effects, most noticeable is that some people experience occasional nausea, but perhaps at dosages of 2,000mg per day this would be reduced or not felt. With such few side effects it seems that EPA is worth trying for the chance of reducing symptoms.
Omega-3 fatty acids or essential fatty acids (EFAs) are fundamental to normal brain functioning. They are thought to help the brain function in 3 major ways. Firstly, by maintaining the cell membranes of neurons. Secondly, causing beneficial changes in neurotransmission and lastly, by reducing oxidative stress. All 3 of these factors have been investigated in separate studies and shown that they are impaired in cases of schizophrenia. Previous research has also shown omega-3 to be an effective add-on to treatment in reducing both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, as well as lowering levels of dyskinesia, a movement disorder that is sometimes a side-effect of antipsychotics. Evidence also suggests that male schizophrenics have a deficit of EFAs (omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fats) in their orbitofrontal cortex. Treatment with antipsychotic medications tends to partially correct this deficit and atypical / second generation medications tend to be more effective at this than typical / first general medications.
Common omega-3 sources: wild salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies and sardines, flaxseed, kiwi, walnuts and poultry.
There have also been some studies indicating that the prognosis of schizophrenic patients is worse in developed countries than in developing countries, despite the availability of medications in the former. This has led to the idea that diet has a major role to play in schizophrenia as well. The countries that had the worst outcomes for schizophrenics consumed much more saturated fats. Better outcomes were associated with a diet in which fat was obtained from fruit, nuts and fish. Also; "A higher national dietary intake of refined sugar and dairy products predicted a worse 2-year outcome of schizophrenia. A high national prevalence of depression was predicted by a low dietary intake of fish and seafood." - PsychologyToday. One reason for this is that sugar lowers BDNF which could cause the brain shrinkage in schizophrenia.
The consensus is that the sooner someone exhibiting signs of psychosis is treated, the greater their response to treatment, the less likely they are to relapse and an overall better quality of life they will have.
Due to the many of adverse side effects of antipsychotic drugs there is increasing interest in alternative treatments for schizophrenia. I will be addressing one of these treatments; ethyl-eicosaptaenoic acid (E-EPA) which is a fatty acid found in omega-3. Below are some of the studies that I have looked at involving E-EPA, also referred to as just EPA.
1) In a study testing the effects of placebo vs omega-3 supplements it was found that 27.5% experienced further development of psychosis after treatment with placebo and only 4.9% experienced this when treated with omega-3 supplements. I wasn't able to find the numbers of people involved or length of test, length until psychosis developed or amount of EPA dosage, but there are more studies.
2) In this second test, 81 high risk youths (young people who had a family history of schizophrenia), all previously showed early symptoms of schizophrenia - short hallucinations and delusions. Based on research, if not treated roughly half would develop schizophrenia. Half of these youths took 1,500mg (1.5 grams) of fish oil for 3 months, and the other half took a placebo. A year after the study started, 3% that took fish oil developed schizophrenia compared with 28% who took the placebo. Previous studies suggest that antipsychotic drugs would have reduced the rate to 12% though they have severe side-effects.
3) In 8 studies ranging from 6 to 16 weeks in duration and involving 517 people diagnosed with schizophrenia there were minimal improvements when subjects were supplemented with EPA and DHA compared to placebo. These tests overall found that the omega-3 oils gave a small increase in general functioning and mental state but not to a statistically significant degree. This could show that omega-3 fatty acids are not effective or that the trials were too small and short in duration, however, it is difficult to tell as this treatment is in its early stage.
4) 87 patients whose average age was 40, took 3,000 mg of EPA per day. This test showed no improvement in schizophrenic symptoms. However, most of these patients had been ill for 2 decades and the study says that "the patients described as benefiting from EPA in prior studies were younger and had a shorter duration of illness." And that; "[Prior] reports have indicated symptom improvement ranging from 17% to 85% when omega-3 fatty acids were added to patients usual medication."
5) 76 patients in a trial of fish oil tablets vs placebo; 41 patients took fish oil tablets 4 times per day and 25 took placebo over a 3 month period. Of the 41 patients that took the fish oil, 2 developed a psychotic disorder after 1 year while 11 of the placebo group developed a psychotic disorder within the one year period.
6) In a study involving an unknown number of patients taking different dosages of EPA; 1g, 2g, and 4g per day it was found that 2,000mg was most effective in reducing psychotic symptoms. This dosage was found to have increased the amount of red cell EPA without decreasing red cell arachidonic acid. This study showed an inverted U relationship between improvement of symptoms and dosage of EPA. Similar effects were shown in a depression study in which 1,000mg per day was most effective.
7) "Administration of omega-3 in adolescent rats prevents positive, negative and cognitive symptoms in a ketamine animal model of schizophrenia. Whether these findings are a consequence of BDNF increase is unclear. However, this study gives compelling evidence for larger clinical trials to confirm the use of omega-3 to prevent schizophrenia and for studies to reinforce the beneficial role of omega-3 in brain protection." - BDNF (brain derived neurotrophic factor) is involved in the growth of new neurons.
It is possible that EPA is able to treat or prevent the onset of full blown schizophrenia if caught early enough and that the studies which didn't work involved patients who had had schizophrenia for a longer duration. One thing is for sure, though, and this is that EPA has very few side effects, most noticeable is that some people experience occasional nausea, but perhaps at dosages of 2,000mg per day this would be reduced or not felt. With such few side effects it seems that EPA is worth trying for the chance of reducing symptoms.
Omega-3 fatty acids or essential fatty acids (EFAs) are fundamental to normal brain functioning. They are thought to help the brain function in 3 major ways. Firstly, by maintaining the cell membranes of neurons. Secondly, causing beneficial changes in neurotransmission and lastly, by reducing oxidative stress. All 3 of these factors have been investigated in separate studies and shown that they are impaired in cases of schizophrenia. Previous research has also shown omega-3 to be an effective add-on to treatment in reducing both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, as well as lowering levels of dyskinesia, a movement disorder that is sometimes a side-effect of antipsychotics. Evidence also suggests that male schizophrenics have a deficit of EFAs (omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fats) in their orbitofrontal cortex. Treatment with antipsychotic medications tends to partially correct this deficit and atypical / second generation medications tend to be more effective at this than typical / first general medications.
Common omega-3 sources: wild salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies and sardines, flaxseed, kiwi, walnuts and poultry.
There have also been some studies indicating that the prognosis of schizophrenic patients is worse in developed countries than in developing countries, despite the availability of medications in the former. This has led to the idea that diet has a major role to play in schizophrenia as well. The countries that had the worst outcomes for schizophrenics consumed much more saturated fats. Better outcomes were associated with a diet in which fat was obtained from fruit, nuts and fish. Also; "A higher national dietary intake of refined sugar and dairy products predicted a worse 2-year outcome of schizophrenia. A high national prevalence of depression was predicted by a low dietary intake of fish and seafood." - PsychologyToday. One reason for this is that sugar lowers BDNF which could cause the brain shrinkage in schizophrenia.
The consensus is that the sooner someone exhibiting signs of psychosis is treated, the greater their response to treatment, the less likely they are to relapse and an overall better quality of life they will have.
Schizophrenia Overview
I came across schizophrenia from the book: The Brain That Changes Itself and decided to investigate more. A quote from the book stood out in my mind; "Brain exercises may be as useful as drugs to treat diseases as severe as schizophrenia". So here's everything I found out anyway.
There are many sub-types of schizophrenia suggesting that it is not a single disease but rather made of many smaller components. In general schizophrenia can be considered a disease of cognitive abnormalities, consisting of abnormal sequential thought known as loose association. The average schizophrenia sufferer will struggle to understand metaphors and follow logical stories. Instead of going through a story and displaying it chronologically they may become distracted and veer off in seemingly random processes of thoughts. This can also be referred to as tangential thinking. It is common to become confused by multiple meanings of words and when talking about one topic or word they may divert between alternative meanings of terms without realising.
Common physiological differences between the average person and the average schizophrenia-sufferer are that the latter normally has a smaller brain and enlarged brain ventricles. Surprisingly, this does not mean that schizophrenics are all less intelligent than other individuals and studies suggest that they span the full range of IQ levels.
In brain scan studies where schizophrenics were given cognitive tests it was shown that they had abnormal brain activity in response to these tasks. One expert said: "Instead of activating very specific and focal regions that are necessary for that particular task, they don't activate the regions that they are supposed to activate and instead they activate other regions... indicating that there is something wrong in the network of the brain that is designed to deal with specific tasks and challenges in everyday life."
Symptoms of schizophrenia are divided into positive and negative categories. Positive symptoms describe those symptoms which reflect an excess or distortion of normal functions, whereas negative symptoms reflect an absence of normal functioning.
The positive symptoms are:
- Hallucinations - auditory hallucinations are a common sign of schizophrenia (hearing voices)
- Delusions
- Disorganised speech
Negative symptoms are:
- Lack of will
- Social withdrawal
- Loss of speech
- Loss of pleasure
Despite what some may think, statistically, schizophrenics are less dangerous than 'normal' individuals in society. The rates of violent crime committed by schizophrenics are extremely low but, they are more prone to cause themselves harm.
As schizophrenics get older, positive symptoms tend to alleviate and negative symptoms become more pronounced.
Schizophrenia is normally diagnosed between the ages of 18 to 30. This may due to the maturation of the frontal cortex which usually receives a massive boost in maturity between ages 18-25. If you make it to age 30 without developing symptoms of schizophrenia then it is highly unlikely that you will ever have it. Normally, the symptoms are brought on by major stressors such as environment change or bereavement. Roughly 1-2% of the general population become schizophrenic in their lifetime.
There are a number of ideas as to what causes schizophrenia. Three ideas that are based on different neurotransmitters have come to my attention.
Firstly, serotonin. Serotonin is similar in structure to many strong hallucinogens and these hallucinogens fit into serotonin receptors. Having an excess of serotonin would explain why schizophrenics experience auditory and visual hallucinations.
Secondly, glutamate. Whenever people take the drug PCP they begin experiencing thoughts and sensations such as feeling detached from their environment which is quite common in schizophrenics. PCP works by wildly stimulating a certain type of glutamate receptor.
Lastly, and more widely researched, Dopamine.The dopamine hypothesis is that somewhere in the brain of a schizophrenic there is an excess of dopamine in the synapses. This is supported by elevated levels of breakdown products associated with dopamine being present in the blood, urine and cerebrospinal fluid. Also, all of the classic drugs that work with schizophrenia block dopamine receptors. Generally, if you give a schizophrenic a drug that reduces the activity of dopamine receptors, their symptoms alleviate. Autopsies too, have shown that there are greater amounts of dopamine receptors in the frontal cortex of these patients. However, some anti-psychotic drugs increase dopamine signalling with alleviation of symptoms.
Examples of abnormalities relating to the brain:
- Whenever a person with schizophrenia is hallucinating there is an extremely high level of metabolic rate throughout the brain.
- When performing memory tasks hippocampal metabolism does not increase as much as a healthy individual.
- Due to enlargement of the brain ventricles the amount of available space for the brain to grow is reduced and this results in contraction of the cortex, particularly in the frontal cortex.
- The thalamus tends to be atrophied (smaller / shrunken).
- There is a reduction of a protein called reelin, a protein involved in cortical maturation. This may indicate that schizophrenics' brains don't mature fully in late adolescence / early adulthood.
- Finally, in studies of the frontal cortex some studies have shown that there are fewer neurons or fewer glia or fewer of both in comparison to healthy individuals.
Stages of Schizophrenia
1) Prodrome:
- Suspiciousness, unusual thoughts, unrealistic beliefs of abilities - grandiosity
- Changes in sensory experience (hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting or smelling things that others don't experience)
- Disorganized communication (difficulty getting to the point, rambling, illogical reasoning)
35% of individuals presenting one of these symptoms develop psychosis within 2.5 years. Substance use including alcohol and marijuana increase the risk of developing psychosis.
Prodrome can last for up to 3 years and is the perfect time to intervene.
2) Active phase:
- Delusions
- Hallucinations
- Noticeable differences in thinking, behaviour and feelings.
During a lifetime some people suffering from schizophrenia may become actively ill once or twice or many times.
3) Residual phase:
After the active phase, people with schizophrenia may be weary, unmotivated, have trouble concentrating and withdraw from other people. This phase is similar to the prodrome phase. Unfortunately effects of the residual phase may increase with each occurrence. The best thing to do therefore, is attempt to avoid a relapse into the active phase.
People with schizophrenia appear to cope best with a regular routine of meals, sleep, work and recreation. Living with people who are calm, matter-of-fact and warm without being intrusively close seems to be very beneficial. Patients who went to live with families that were more emotionally involved (highly EE - emotionally expressive) showed greater likelihood of relapse, this may include members of the family that were more easily stressed or showed greater hostility.
Some research is being done on the effectiveness of certain therapies such as music-making, art, dancing and writing poetry. It seems that non-rational expression can be helpful to those suffering from schizophrenia, perhaps as a way of emotional output.
There are many sub-types of schizophrenia suggesting that it is not a single disease but rather made of many smaller components. In general schizophrenia can be considered a disease of cognitive abnormalities, consisting of abnormal sequential thought known as loose association. The average schizophrenia sufferer will struggle to understand metaphors and follow logical stories. Instead of going through a story and displaying it chronologically they may become distracted and veer off in seemingly random processes of thoughts. This can also be referred to as tangential thinking. It is common to become confused by multiple meanings of words and when talking about one topic or word they may divert between alternative meanings of terms without realising.
Common physiological differences between the average person and the average schizophrenia-sufferer are that the latter normally has a smaller brain and enlarged brain ventricles. Surprisingly, this does not mean that schizophrenics are all less intelligent than other individuals and studies suggest that they span the full range of IQ levels.
In brain scan studies where schizophrenics were given cognitive tests it was shown that they had abnormal brain activity in response to these tasks. One expert said: "Instead of activating very specific and focal regions that are necessary for that particular task, they don't activate the regions that they are supposed to activate and instead they activate other regions... indicating that there is something wrong in the network of the brain that is designed to deal with specific tasks and challenges in everyday life."
Symptoms of schizophrenia are divided into positive and negative categories. Positive symptoms describe those symptoms which reflect an excess or distortion of normal functions, whereas negative symptoms reflect an absence of normal functioning.
The positive symptoms are:
- Hallucinations - auditory hallucinations are a common sign of schizophrenia (hearing voices)
- Delusions
- Disorganised speech
Negative symptoms are:
- Lack of will
- Social withdrawal
- Loss of speech
- Loss of pleasure
Despite what some may think, statistically, schizophrenics are less dangerous than 'normal' individuals in society. The rates of violent crime committed by schizophrenics are extremely low but, they are more prone to cause themselves harm.
As schizophrenics get older, positive symptoms tend to alleviate and negative symptoms become more pronounced.
Schizophrenia is normally diagnosed between the ages of 18 to 30. This may due to the maturation of the frontal cortex which usually receives a massive boost in maturity between ages 18-25. If you make it to age 30 without developing symptoms of schizophrenia then it is highly unlikely that you will ever have it. Normally, the symptoms are brought on by major stressors such as environment change or bereavement. Roughly 1-2% of the general population become schizophrenic in their lifetime.
There are a number of ideas as to what causes schizophrenia. Three ideas that are based on different neurotransmitters have come to my attention.
Firstly, serotonin. Serotonin is similar in structure to many strong hallucinogens and these hallucinogens fit into serotonin receptors. Having an excess of serotonin would explain why schizophrenics experience auditory and visual hallucinations.
Secondly, glutamate. Whenever people take the drug PCP they begin experiencing thoughts and sensations such as feeling detached from their environment which is quite common in schizophrenics. PCP works by wildly stimulating a certain type of glutamate receptor.
Lastly, and more widely researched, Dopamine.The dopamine hypothesis is that somewhere in the brain of a schizophrenic there is an excess of dopamine in the synapses. This is supported by elevated levels of breakdown products associated with dopamine being present in the blood, urine and cerebrospinal fluid. Also, all of the classic drugs that work with schizophrenia block dopamine receptors. Generally, if you give a schizophrenic a drug that reduces the activity of dopamine receptors, their symptoms alleviate. Autopsies too, have shown that there are greater amounts of dopamine receptors in the frontal cortex of these patients. However, some anti-psychotic drugs increase dopamine signalling with alleviation of symptoms.
Examples of abnormalities relating to the brain:
- Whenever a person with schizophrenia is hallucinating there is an extremely high level of metabolic rate throughout the brain.
- When performing memory tasks hippocampal metabolism does not increase as much as a healthy individual.
- Due to enlargement of the brain ventricles the amount of available space for the brain to grow is reduced and this results in contraction of the cortex, particularly in the frontal cortex.
- The thalamus tends to be atrophied (smaller / shrunken).
- There is a reduction of a protein called reelin, a protein involved in cortical maturation. This may indicate that schizophrenics' brains don't mature fully in late adolescence / early adulthood.
- Finally, in studies of the frontal cortex some studies have shown that there are fewer neurons or fewer glia or fewer of both in comparison to healthy individuals.
Stages of Schizophrenia
1) Prodrome:
- Suspiciousness, unusual thoughts, unrealistic beliefs of abilities - grandiosity
- Changes in sensory experience (hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting or smelling things that others don't experience)
- Disorganized communication (difficulty getting to the point, rambling, illogical reasoning)
35% of individuals presenting one of these symptoms develop psychosis within 2.5 years. Substance use including alcohol and marijuana increase the risk of developing psychosis.
Prodrome can last for up to 3 years and is the perfect time to intervene.
2) Active phase:
- Delusions
- Hallucinations
- Noticeable differences in thinking, behaviour and feelings.
During a lifetime some people suffering from schizophrenia may become actively ill once or twice or many times.
3) Residual phase:
After the active phase, people with schizophrenia may be weary, unmotivated, have trouble concentrating and withdraw from other people. This phase is similar to the prodrome phase. Unfortunately effects of the residual phase may increase with each occurrence. The best thing to do therefore, is attempt to avoid a relapse into the active phase.
People with schizophrenia appear to cope best with a regular routine of meals, sleep, work and recreation. Living with people who are calm, matter-of-fact and warm without being intrusively close seems to be very beneficial. Patients who went to live with families that were more emotionally involved (highly EE - emotionally expressive) showed greater likelihood of relapse, this may include members of the family that were more easily stressed or showed greater hostility.
Some research is being done on the effectiveness of certain therapies such as music-making, art, dancing and writing poetry. It seems that non-rational expression can be helpful to those suffering from schizophrenia, perhaps as a way of emotional output.
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